ABSTRACT
This research examines the evolution of Romanian Television News programs, by analyzing how the power of television was manipulated during the communist regime, and how, after more than seventeen years of a democratic system, propaganda is still working in the Romanian television industry. For the purpose of this study, a historical research was conducted. When analyzing the Romanian television, the historical research encompasses its origin and growth by gathering of as much information as possible. By collecting, analyzing, and interpreting comprehensive narrative and visual data, knowledge about how Romanian television has worked in the past and in the present was obtained. The findings of this research suggest that censorship is still a problem in Romania in the context of news programs. Based on the data collected, the study illustrates that ownership and government control are important problems Romanian broadcasting industry has to deal with.
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Background
Considered one of the greatest 20th century inventions, television was a phenomenon that in a relatively short period of time greatly influenced people. In different parts of the world this new communication tool rapidly became a powerful instrument in the hands of communist propagandists.[1] Along with the Nazis propaganda that in the 1930s started using radio and movies to promote their ideas and beliefs, communist propaganda has been one of the most sustained tactics to control public opinion. The communist system, the party, the state, and the government controlled the process of information especially through their monopoly of the mass media. This was the case in several states from Eastern Europe, with various differences from country to country. This region’s media were dominated by censorship, the party serving as the leader of what was considered to be a “gigantic multi-media” corporation.[2]
In 1945, through what is known as The Yalta Treaty, three significant personalities of the 20th century–Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Josef Stalin--decided the destiny of several nations on a piece of tissue paper. As strange as it may appear, by tracing a simple red line on the European map, delimiting the Western influence from the Soviet one, these three men closed for some and opened for others the access to free communication and information. Romania was one of the most negatively affected countries. By “receiving” 90 % of Soviet influence and only 10 % of Western influence[3], its information system was reduced to being a propaganda tool for communism and its leader Ceausescu. Mass media rapidly became important tools in the hands of communist leaders not only in Romania, but also in the rest of the Eastern European countries under communist regime (Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Albania, U.S.S.R-Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and Yugoslavia).
The establishment of television in Romania occurred under the communist regime, when all the means of information and communication were centralized under state-party control. Consequently, the communist government used the power of television to disseminate its propagandistic messages in an attempt to create a false perception about dominant ideologies.
The communist era came to an end in December 1989 when the revolution brought freedom and a new period in Romania’s history. Unhappily, although a democratic system came to power, to date Romanian media is not free of influence and control. With the government still controlling national television or with the ownership of major media in the hands of a few people, it often happens that political and business interests are behind the media agenda rather than the viewer’s interests.
[1] Baran Stanley and Davis K. Dennis. Mass Communication Theory (Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006), 234.
[2] Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002), 17.
[3] Teodor Georgescu. Romania in Istoria Secolului 20: 1945-1990. (Romania in the 20th century: 1945-1990) (Bucuresti: Hyperion XXI, 1992), 46.
Statement of the Problem
The communist regime brought television to Romania in 1956. The new communication technique was employed by the ruling system in the fight to change old beliefs and to dictate new opinions. Consequently, for more than thirty years, Romanians had television but they failed to enjoy it. All information and communication channels – television, radio, printing and publishing resources – were under the ruling party’s control. Every piece of information was meticulously examined and no broadcast or article could be released without approval.[1]
Television in communist Romania was a reflection of the country’s policy – more permissive in the early 1960s and more restrictive in the late 1970s, after Ceausescu started to counter western influence. Particularly in the last years of communism, national television offered programs that were mostly odes to the country’s communist leader, his wife, and their politics. [2] Children and teenagers exalted their leader during the few hours of available programming. Entertainment virtually disappeared, and broadcasting was reduced to two hours per day in 1985.[3]
The fall of communism in 1989 brought democracy, freedom of speech, and a new era for Romanian television. Privately-held, commercial television emerged and a new industry was born, with both national and international actors looking to fulfill their interests. Nevertheless, despite the independence gained with the revolution, the television industry in Romania does not look promising. Public service broadcasting suffers from a lack of political independence, while the ownership patterns of commercial television stations reveal an excessive concentration of single ownership and insufficient transparency in its operations.[4]
[1] Tiberiu Trancota, Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship.) (Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006), 185.
[2] Gheorghe Epuran and Normand Turgeon, “The Romanian Television Industry”, Journal of Euro-Marketing 11 (2001): 38.
[3]Misha Glenny, The Rebirth of History. Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy, (London: Penguin Group, 1990), 89.
[4] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Reports 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 10 April 2008);available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view; Internet.
Purpose and Research Question
The purpose of this study is to illustrate how the objectivity of today’s news programs in Romania is questionable and how censorship is still a problem in Romania in the context of programming.
To determine the validity of this statement the following questions will be explored: “Is the power system in Romania still in the hands of former communists?”; “Is the historical system that the communists established in Romanian television still influencing television news programming today?”; “What are the features of Romanian television news reporting and programming that suggest there is censorship taking place?”.
These questions will be answered by conducting a historical research, based on the analysis and interpretation of comprehensive data and texts, providing the knowledge about how Romanian television has worked in the past and in the present.
Considered one of the greatest 20th century inventions, television was a phenomenon that in a relatively short period of time greatly influenced people. In different parts of the world this new communication tool rapidly became a powerful instrument in the hands of communist propagandists.[1] Along with the Nazis propaganda that in the 1930s started using radio and movies to promote their ideas and beliefs, communist propaganda has been one of the most sustained tactics to control public opinion. The communist system, the party, the state, and the government controlled the process of information especially through their monopoly of the mass media. This was the case in several states from Eastern Europe, with various differences from country to country. This region’s media were dominated by censorship, the party serving as the leader of what was considered to be a “gigantic multi-media” corporation.[2]
In 1945, through what is known as The Yalta Treaty, three significant personalities of the 20th century–Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Josef Stalin--decided the destiny of several nations on a piece of tissue paper. As strange as it may appear, by tracing a simple red line on the European map, delimiting the Western influence from the Soviet one, these three men closed for some and opened for others the access to free communication and information. Romania was one of the most negatively affected countries. By “receiving” 90 % of Soviet influence and only 10 % of Western influence[3], its information system was reduced to being a propaganda tool for communism and its leader Ceausescu. Mass media rapidly became important tools in the hands of communist leaders not only in Romania, but also in the rest of the Eastern European countries under communist regime (Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Albania, U.S.S.R-Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and Yugoslavia).
The establishment of television in Romania occurred under the communist regime, when all the means of information and communication were centralized under state-party control. Consequently, the communist government used the power of television to disseminate its propagandistic messages in an attempt to create a false perception about dominant ideologies.
The communist era came to an end in December 1989 when the revolution brought freedom and a new period in Romania’s history. Unhappily, although a democratic system came to power, to date Romanian media is not free of influence and control. With the government still controlling national television or with the ownership of major media in the hands of a few people, it often happens that political and business interests are behind the media agenda rather than the viewer’s interests.
[1] Baran Stanley and Davis K. Dennis. Mass Communication Theory (Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006), 234.
[2] Peter Gross, Entangled Evolutions: Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002), 17.
[3] Teodor Georgescu. Romania in Istoria Secolului 20: 1945-1990. (Romania in the 20th century: 1945-1990) (Bucuresti: Hyperion XXI, 1992), 46.
Statement of the Problem
The communist regime brought television to Romania in 1956. The new communication technique was employed by the ruling system in the fight to change old beliefs and to dictate new opinions. Consequently, for more than thirty years, Romanians had television but they failed to enjoy it. All information and communication channels – television, radio, printing and publishing resources – were under the ruling party’s control. Every piece of information was meticulously examined and no broadcast or article could be released without approval.[1]
Television in communist Romania was a reflection of the country’s policy – more permissive in the early 1960s and more restrictive in the late 1970s, after Ceausescu started to counter western influence. Particularly in the last years of communism, national television offered programs that were mostly odes to the country’s communist leader, his wife, and their politics. [2] Children and teenagers exalted their leader during the few hours of available programming. Entertainment virtually disappeared, and broadcasting was reduced to two hours per day in 1985.[3]
The fall of communism in 1989 brought democracy, freedom of speech, and a new era for Romanian television. Privately-held, commercial television emerged and a new industry was born, with both national and international actors looking to fulfill their interests. Nevertheless, despite the independence gained with the revolution, the television industry in Romania does not look promising. Public service broadcasting suffers from a lack of political independence, while the ownership patterns of commercial television stations reveal an excessive concentration of single ownership and insufficient transparency in its operations.[4]
[1] Tiberiu Trancota, Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship.) (Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006), 185.
[2] Gheorghe Epuran and Normand Turgeon, “The Romanian Television Industry”, Journal of Euro-Marketing 11 (2001): 38.
[3]Misha Glenny, The Rebirth of History. Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy, (London: Penguin Group, 1990), 89.
[4] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Reports 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 10 April 2008);available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view; Internet.
Purpose and Research Question
The purpose of this study is to illustrate how the objectivity of today’s news programs in Romania is questionable and how censorship is still a problem in Romania in the context of programming.
To determine the validity of this statement the following questions will be explored: “Is the power system in Romania still in the hands of former communists?”; “Is the historical system that the communists established in Romanian television still influencing television news programming today?”; “What are the features of Romanian television news reporting and programming that suggest there is censorship taking place?”.
These questions will be answered by conducting a historical research, based on the analysis and interpretation of comprehensive data and texts, providing the knowledge about how Romanian television has worked in the past and in the present.
CHAPTER 2 - THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Propaganda Theories
Propaganda theories provide the theoretical framework for this research because they help to explain how political propaganda was used during the communist regime in Romania and how it still affects the post-communist broadcasting industry. Focusing its attention on media and their powerful effects on the audiences, propaganda theories were among the first true media theories developed. Theorists attempted to understand and explain the capacity of media messages to convince and convert large masses of people. Propagandists employ of a variety of communication tools to change the way people act and think, making them believe that their new actions and opinions are their own.[1]
The secret to efficient propaganda consists in the repetition of the same messages and symbols over and over again. Two theories that see the individual as highly vulnerable to media manipulation supported this communist elaborated strategy. John B. Watson and Sigmund Freud developed two perspectives, presently outdated, that have been changed since their inception.
John B. Watson emphasized in his theory about behaviorism that all human action is merely a conditioned response to environmental stimuli.[2] The communist propagandists used an avalanche of symbols that were supposed to stimulate large-scale mass attention and eventually become reflex through the repetition process. However, as the history shown, these tactics eventually failed and so did the communist propaganda. Oversaturated with propagandistic symbols, people had only one choice: to accept but not to assume them.
The Freudian theory, developed by Sigmund Freud, considered the father of psychoanalysis, highlights people’s inability to exercise rational control over their actions. Freud considered that the self that guides action must be fragmented into conflicting parts: ego (rational mind), id (the egocentric pleasure-seeking part of the mind), and superego (the internalized set of cultural rules). Although the rational part is usually in control, sometimes other parts become dominant. [3]
Both theories emphasize media’s enormous influence on people. However, they are overly simplistic and no longer up to date. Since the communism ideology failed in most of the countries where it was propagated, these theories that tried to explain the communist control of media had the same fate.
Along with Walter Lippmann and John Dewey, Harold Lasswell was one of the most important media theorists interested in propaganda. Although the theory he developed brings a pessimistic vision of media and their role and received much criticism, some of his points tried to explain how propaganda works. He argued about a slow and long-term process in which new ideas and symbols are first introduced and then cultivated. Consequently, people associate strong emotions to these symbols, which posses the power to influence audiences if they are used intelligently. [4]
Although his theory formulated some interesting points, Lasswell’s solution to propaganda seems impossible and manipulative as well. He argued that the power of propaganda can be stopped only if controlled by a new elite, a scientific technocracy that would protect vulnerable average people from harmful propaganda. His thoughts were sustained by another media theorist, Walter Lippmann, who shared his skepticism about the capacity of average people to decide for themselves. He questioned the feasibility of democracy and the role of a free press by arguing that common people could not govern themselves; instead a powerful form of media control was needed.[5]
These early propaganda theories were opposed by philosopher John Dewey, who brought a new vision about propaganda and whose ideas are still valuable. He argued that media should be perceived as public servants that provide discussions and debates, while people use media to maintain their culture. When media work to manipulate their audiences, they no longer serve as convincing “facilitators and guardians of public debate”.[6] People refuse to accept their messages and the link between them and media disappears. In the last years of communism in Romania, censorship was omnipresent in the media, including television. The news bulletins were constantly propagating lies about the benefits of the system and no foreign news was allowed to be broadcast. Consequently, people did not trust the TV anymore and started to seek out other sources of information. Access to East-Central European and some Western broadcasting was possible for people who lived near the national borders or possessed an illegal satellite dish. [7]
Furthermore, all these theories that attempted to explain the communism domination did not succeed in proving their views. Along with the failure of communism, the early propaganda theories lost their credibility.
According to several critical contemporary theorists, a well coordinated communication and a complex language that would discourage reflective thought are propagandistic strategies used successfully today by powerful elites to impose their truth on the culture.[8] Political discourse and advertising are areas that could easily use propaganda; the message is shaped by elites in an attractive way with the single aim to serve their own interests.
Economist and media analyst Edward S. Herman identified five filters that are used by powerful business and government entities to control the communication channels: (1) ownership; (2) advertising; (3) sourcing; (4) media’s belief in the miracle of the market; (5) “anticommunism” as a national religion and control mechanism.[9] Through ownership of media conglomerates, the professional independence of journalists has decreased; they have to follow guidelines that sometimes are in accordance to owners’ interests rather than to public’s agenda. Furthermore, media might be financed and consequently, influenced by powerful entities that expect favors in return.
Behaviorists Richard Laitinen and Richard Rakos noticed that although in democratic systems the absence of government control is considered a feature of a free society, this does not mean that information is free of any influence. Economic and political interests represent significant threats to free communication. The incorporation of media companies into megaconglomerates offers excessive power in the hands of powerful elites without the public’s awareness. [10]
Romanian post-communist media has the premises of modern propaganda. The broadcasting industry is dominated by a few media groups, while most of their owners have close relations with business and political circles.[11] When owners of media outlets are also leaders of political parties it is not difficult to imagine that concepts such as objectivity and independence are not always respected. Moreover, in the past years, being under government control, Romanian public television had to face many accusations of censorship and propaganda. Many times, the public discourse is shaped to serve other’s interests rather than the audience’s interests.
[1] Stanley Baran and Davis K. Dennis, Mass Communication Theory (Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006), 74.
[2] Ibid., 80.
[3] Ibid., 25.
[4] Ibid., 86.
[5] Ibid., 83.
[6] Ibid., 87.
[7] Thomas A Mollison, “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 129.
[8] Stanley Baran and Davis K. Dennis, Mass Communication Theory (Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006), 74.
[9] Ibid., 89.
[10] Ibid., 88.
[11] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Report 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 15 March 2008), available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view; Internet.
Propaganda theories provide the theoretical framework for this research because they help to explain how political propaganda was used during the communist regime in Romania and how it still affects the post-communist broadcasting industry. Focusing its attention on media and their powerful effects on the audiences, propaganda theories were among the first true media theories developed. Theorists attempted to understand and explain the capacity of media messages to convince and convert large masses of people. Propagandists employ of a variety of communication tools to change the way people act and think, making them believe that their new actions and opinions are their own.[1]
The secret to efficient propaganda consists in the repetition of the same messages and symbols over and over again. Two theories that see the individual as highly vulnerable to media manipulation supported this communist elaborated strategy. John B. Watson and Sigmund Freud developed two perspectives, presently outdated, that have been changed since their inception.
John B. Watson emphasized in his theory about behaviorism that all human action is merely a conditioned response to environmental stimuli.[2] The communist propagandists used an avalanche of symbols that were supposed to stimulate large-scale mass attention and eventually become reflex through the repetition process. However, as the history shown, these tactics eventually failed and so did the communist propaganda. Oversaturated with propagandistic symbols, people had only one choice: to accept but not to assume them.
The Freudian theory, developed by Sigmund Freud, considered the father of psychoanalysis, highlights people’s inability to exercise rational control over their actions. Freud considered that the self that guides action must be fragmented into conflicting parts: ego (rational mind), id (the egocentric pleasure-seeking part of the mind), and superego (the internalized set of cultural rules). Although the rational part is usually in control, sometimes other parts become dominant. [3]
Both theories emphasize media’s enormous influence on people. However, they are overly simplistic and no longer up to date. Since the communism ideology failed in most of the countries where it was propagated, these theories that tried to explain the communist control of media had the same fate.
Along with Walter Lippmann and John Dewey, Harold Lasswell was one of the most important media theorists interested in propaganda. Although the theory he developed brings a pessimistic vision of media and their role and received much criticism, some of his points tried to explain how propaganda works. He argued about a slow and long-term process in which new ideas and symbols are first introduced and then cultivated. Consequently, people associate strong emotions to these symbols, which posses the power to influence audiences if they are used intelligently. [4]
Although his theory formulated some interesting points, Lasswell’s solution to propaganda seems impossible and manipulative as well. He argued that the power of propaganda can be stopped only if controlled by a new elite, a scientific technocracy that would protect vulnerable average people from harmful propaganda. His thoughts were sustained by another media theorist, Walter Lippmann, who shared his skepticism about the capacity of average people to decide for themselves. He questioned the feasibility of democracy and the role of a free press by arguing that common people could not govern themselves; instead a powerful form of media control was needed.[5]
These early propaganda theories were opposed by philosopher John Dewey, who brought a new vision about propaganda and whose ideas are still valuable. He argued that media should be perceived as public servants that provide discussions and debates, while people use media to maintain their culture. When media work to manipulate their audiences, they no longer serve as convincing “facilitators and guardians of public debate”.[6] People refuse to accept their messages and the link between them and media disappears. In the last years of communism in Romania, censorship was omnipresent in the media, including television. The news bulletins were constantly propagating lies about the benefits of the system and no foreign news was allowed to be broadcast. Consequently, people did not trust the TV anymore and started to seek out other sources of information. Access to East-Central European and some Western broadcasting was possible for people who lived near the national borders or possessed an illegal satellite dish. [7]
Furthermore, all these theories that attempted to explain the communism domination did not succeed in proving their views. Along with the failure of communism, the early propaganda theories lost their credibility.
According to several critical contemporary theorists, a well coordinated communication and a complex language that would discourage reflective thought are propagandistic strategies used successfully today by powerful elites to impose their truth on the culture.[8] Political discourse and advertising are areas that could easily use propaganda; the message is shaped by elites in an attractive way with the single aim to serve their own interests.
Economist and media analyst Edward S. Herman identified five filters that are used by powerful business and government entities to control the communication channels: (1) ownership; (2) advertising; (3) sourcing; (4) media’s belief in the miracle of the market; (5) “anticommunism” as a national religion and control mechanism.[9] Through ownership of media conglomerates, the professional independence of journalists has decreased; they have to follow guidelines that sometimes are in accordance to owners’ interests rather than to public’s agenda. Furthermore, media might be financed and consequently, influenced by powerful entities that expect favors in return.
Behaviorists Richard Laitinen and Richard Rakos noticed that although in democratic systems the absence of government control is considered a feature of a free society, this does not mean that information is free of any influence. Economic and political interests represent significant threats to free communication. The incorporation of media companies into megaconglomerates offers excessive power in the hands of powerful elites without the public’s awareness. [10]
Romanian post-communist media has the premises of modern propaganda. The broadcasting industry is dominated by a few media groups, while most of their owners have close relations with business and political circles.[11] When owners of media outlets are also leaders of political parties it is not difficult to imagine that concepts such as objectivity and independence are not always respected. Moreover, in the past years, being under government control, Romanian public television had to face many accusations of censorship and propaganda. Many times, the public discourse is shaped to serve other’s interests rather than the audience’s interests.
[1] Stanley Baran and Davis K. Dennis, Mass Communication Theory (Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006), 74.
[2] Ibid., 80.
[3] Ibid., 25.
[4] Ibid., 86.
[5] Ibid., 83.
[6] Ibid., 87.
[7] Thomas A Mollison, “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 129.
[8] Stanley Baran and Davis K. Dennis, Mass Communication Theory (Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006), 74.
[9] Ibid., 89.
[10] Ibid., 88.
[11] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Report 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 15 March 2008), available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view; Internet.
CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY
For the purpose of this study, a historical research was conducted. This method of research can offer insight into organizational culture, current trends, and future possibilities.[1] When analyzing the Romanian television, the historical research encompasses its origin and growth by gathering of as much information as possible. By collecting, analyzing, and interpreting comprehensive narrative and visual data, knowledge about how Romanian television has worked in the past and in the present was obtained. According to the functional goal of this research, it is an exploratory investigation, predominantly descriptive.
Both quantitative and qualitative variables can be used in the collection of historical information.[3] For this study, qualitative research is appropriate because it involves mostly nonnumerical data, such as extensive notes, interview data, videotape, and other nonnumerical artifacts.[2] Since the researcher looks for information that can be studied in depth, materials that reveal interactions and experiences with pre- and post-communist era were searched. Ultimately, the researcher selected, organized, and analyzed the most pertinent collected evidence, drawing the conclusions.
[1] Charles Busha and Stephen P. Harter, Research Methods in Librarianship: techniques and Interpretations (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 91. [2] Ibid., 92. [3] L.R. Gay and others, Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications, (New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2006), 399.
Measures and Instruments
In historical research everything that is studied is context-bound and therefore, historical researchers should include as much detail as possible ensuring that they are not misinterpreting or making up anything they see or hear.[1]
For the purpose of this research, the instrument used to answer the research questions was a comprehensive analysis of various texts. The validity (trustworthiness and understanding) of the research findings were demonstrated by a detailed description of the context based on documents, interviews, films, and videotapes. The use of various sources provided an accurate data analysis.
The central focus of this research is to provide an understanding of the Romanian
news programs before and after the fall of communism as viewed from the perspective of the texts analyzed. The results of this study concentrate on the data obtained from the texts used by the researcher. Through a multitude of studies, interviews, and movies, the researcher obtained a large amount of information about the broadcasting industry during the communist era.
[1] .R. Gay and others, Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications, (New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2006), 403.
Purpose and Research Question
The purpose of this study is to illustrate how the objectivity of today’s news programs in Romania is questionable and how censorship is still a problem in Romania in the context of programming.
To determine the validity of this statement the following questions will be explored: “Is the power system in Romania still in the hands of former communists?”; “Is the historical system that the communists established in Romanian television still influencing television news programming today?”; “What are the features of Romanian television news reporting and programming that suggest there is censorship taking place?”. These questions will be answered by conducting a historical research, based on the analysis and interpretation of comprehensive data and texts, providing the knowledge about how Romanian television has worked in the past and in the present.
Both quantitative and qualitative variables can be used in the collection of historical information.[3] For this study, qualitative research is appropriate because it involves mostly nonnumerical data, such as extensive notes, interview data, videotape, and other nonnumerical artifacts.[2] Since the researcher looks for information that can be studied in depth, materials that reveal interactions and experiences with pre- and post-communist era were searched. Ultimately, the researcher selected, organized, and analyzed the most pertinent collected evidence, drawing the conclusions.
[1] Charles Busha and Stephen P. Harter, Research Methods in Librarianship: techniques and Interpretations (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 91. [2] Ibid., 92. [3] L.R. Gay and others, Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications, (New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2006), 399.
Measures and Instruments
In historical research everything that is studied is context-bound and therefore, historical researchers should include as much detail as possible ensuring that they are not misinterpreting or making up anything they see or hear.[1]
For the purpose of this research, the instrument used to answer the research questions was a comprehensive analysis of various texts. The validity (trustworthiness and understanding) of the research findings were demonstrated by a detailed description of the context based on documents, interviews, films, and videotapes. The use of various sources provided an accurate data analysis.
The central focus of this research is to provide an understanding of the Romanian
news programs before and after the fall of communism as viewed from the perspective of the texts analyzed. The results of this study concentrate on the data obtained from the texts used by the researcher. Through a multitude of studies, interviews, and movies, the researcher obtained a large amount of information about the broadcasting industry during the communist era.
[1] .R. Gay and others, Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications, (New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2006), 403.
Purpose and Research Question
The purpose of this study is to illustrate how the objectivity of today’s news programs in Romania is questionable and how censorship is still a problem in Romania in the context of programming.
To determine the validity of this statement the following questions will be explored: “Is the power system in Romania still in the hands of former communists?”; “Is the historical system that the communists established in Romanian television still influencing television news programming today?”; “What are the features of Romanian television news reporting and programming that suggest there is censorship taking place?”. These questions will be answered by conducting a historical research, based on the analysis and interpretation of comprehensive data and texts, providing the knowledge about how Romanian television has worked in the past and in the present.
CHAPTER 4 - OVERVIEW OF ROMANIAN TELEVISION
News Propaganda
During the Communist Regime The communist regime brought television in Romania in 1956, when, on December 31, the first television program was broadcast from an improvised studio. From the very beginning, along with the newspapers and the radio, this new communication channel was perceived by the communist system as an important tool in the fight to promote the party’s ideology. Consequently, during the communist era, Romanian television did not serve its audience; instead, it became a component of the ruling regime, without any freedom or editorial independence.[1]
The evolution of Romanian Public Television was a reflection of the government’s policy and can be analyzed following the stages of the communist era in Romania: first stage (1947-1965) – stabilization of the newly established communist regime; second stage (1965-1971) – a permissive policy, open to Western media and culture; third stage (1971-1978) – Romania’s use of ideological mobilization to create the “new socialist man”, after China’ and Korea’s models; fourth stage (1978-1989) – the dominance of an increased personality cult and dictatorship.[2]
Between 1956 and 1971, Romanian television followed a rising path, with the state’s policy being more open and tolerant. Until he consolidated his power, Nicolae Ceausescu managed to put a human face on the totalitarian system, easing the censorship over mass media and allowing foreign programs to be broadcast on TV[3].
The mask of liberalization began to fall off starting with 1971, when Ceausescu and his wife visited China and Northern Korea. He was impressed by the vast manifestations and the well organized adulation for Mao or Kim II Sung. The stage-managed adulation of Mao and Kim II Sung, so meticulously choreographed, fired Ceausescu’s imagination and he demanded the same upon his return to Romania”.[4] Television developed into an important instrument in his plan, as he decided to purify Romanian culture of foreign and other influences. Everything had to be made in Romania and this included TV programs as well.[5] The first item to be sacrificed in this case was the international news. Most of the time, the entire newscast was dedicated to Ceausescu’s “extraordinary” speeches or visits. [6] As important news people could watch on TV during the few hours of available programming, odes of exaltations, performed by the young soimi ai patriei or pionieri.[7]
The last years of Ceausescu’s dictatorship were the worst. Entertainment, culture and sports almost disappeared from the TV programs, while broadcasting was narrowed to two hours per day in 1985 with TVR 2 channel being interrupted from its transmission.[8] Censorship was omnipresent in mass media, including television. The news programs were strictly monitored, any information concerning economical problems being forbidden. Words such as banana, orange, or coffee had been eliminated from the language used by media because it was almost impossible to find these products in stores, along with terms referring to the precarious living conditions: hunger, cold, darkness, etc. [9]
Eventually, communist television lost whatever credibility it had managed to obtain since its establishment in 1956. Therefore, television failed to be an accurate informer and surveyor of Romanian society and even failed to perform the roles assigned by the party and state. [10]
[1]Tiberiu Trancota, Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship) (Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006), 188.
[2] Peter, Gross, Mass Media in Revolution and National Development: the Romanian Laboratory (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1996), 9.
[3] Ibid.
[4]Dennis Delletant, Romania under Communist Rule ( Iasi: Center for Romanian Studies, 1999), 176.
[5] Anthony Daniells, Utopias Elsewhere. Journeys in a Vanishing World (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.,1991), 79.
[6]Gheorghe Epuran and Normand Turgeon, “The Romanian Television Industry”, Journal of Euro-Marketing 11 (2001): 38.
[7] Titles “achieved” by children in nursery and elementary school through a ceremony, which was an important moment in every child’s life, representing the pride of being children of the communism.
[8] Romania Television Society, TVR 50, (accessed 20 January 2008); available from http://www.tvr50.ro/ ; Internet.
[9] Tiberiu Trancota, Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship) (Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006), 193.
[10] Peter, Gross, Mass Media in Revolution and National Development: the Romanian Laboratory (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1996), 23.
Broadcasting Free: Post-Communism News Programs
The failure of communism in Romania not only has led to the collapse of rules and functioning systems, but also led to the appearance of a free and chaotic mass media system. The euphoria generated by the mass media boom (the rapid establishment of thousands of outlets, from political magazines to local music radios, dailies to new wire services, television stations to advertising companies, etc) has produced an incomplete image of the freedom of press. [1]
Although immediately after the fall of communism in 1989, Romanian Television became Free Romanian Television, that freedom lasted for less than two months. After the first democratic system came to power, Romanian Television was once again a valuable asset in the hands of the new government. [2] The first democratically elected leader of the state opposed any kind of elimination based on former Communist Party membership. As a result, most of the current mainstream media managers held important positions in the communist era.[3]
Private initiative in the television industry took form after 1992, when the new Audio-Visual Law allowed independent agencies to apply for licenses from the Ministry of Communication. By the end of 1993 licenses had been given to 50 TV stations and 196 private cable companies.[4]
However, these licenses were only given to local and regional broadcasters, the procedure for obtaining a license being long and difficult, with the hidden purpose to ensure that public stations had national control to protect their dominant position on the audio-visual market.[5]
After 1992, the government monopoly on television began to weaken along with the installation of satellite networks and the emergence of small, independent stations that reach local and sometimes regional audiences, which offered alternatives to the programs broadcast on public television.[6] Albeit the live transmission of anti-communist revolution, on December 1989, gave media a particular force, by the mid 1990s, television in Romania was mostly an entertainment tool.[7]
The real battle for commercial television started after 1996, when PRO TV channel was founded. Part of the Central European Media Enterprises (CME group), Pro TV broke the barriers of television, bringing a very powerful American marketing strategy. The news bulletins presented information in a brief format, with many spectacular images and numerous local correspondents. Its objective news coverage was considered by many as one of the reasons for the failure of the first post-communist regime in the 1996 elections. The new channel broadcast 60 minutes of news every day, dedicating about 25-30% of the program to international news.[8]
Pro TV played an important role in the evolution of the Romanian television market, by bringing the concept of competition. Rapidly, Romanian State Television and the other private stations tried to copy Pro TV’s format, in an attempt to offer new and improved programs. However, quantity does not necessarily mean quality. Consequently, the battle for audiences created mediocre television, with entertainment, soap operas, or action movies as the main players. [9]
In 1992, when government control of Romanian television started to weaken, the audio-visual market in Romania counted eight privately-held TV stations, more than any other Eastern European nation.[10] Today, the Romanian television industry counts more than thirty stations, and the number is growing. Although a new Audiovisual Code has been recently adopted, there are channels that continue to ignore the new rules. The results of two studies conducted by the EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program in 2005 and 2008 revealed that the broadcasting industry in Romania shows week independence and low credibility of broadcasters. Although there are hundreds of investors in the audiovisual field, the television industry continues to be controlled by four large players, along with public television, which remains under government control. [11]
In recent years Romanian media experienced hat local experts call “berlusconisation”.[12] In other words, media moguls enjoy political and economic power while having absolute control over the media. [13] Political involvement and no objectivity in covering the news are some of the problems Romanian television industry has faced over the past years, without much of improvement so far.[14] In post-communist Romania, public visibility is one of the main objectives of media leaders, who carefully oversee their public appearances. Directors and owners of media corporations are regularly spotted on the front page of newspapers or in popular TV talk shows. During election campaigns, the leaders in mass media dominate the debates on TV and quite frequently, after the elections, they reappear in various government positions. For many, mass media represents a starting point for a successful political career.[15] According to Ioana Avadani, “Romanian politics and business are very close. Even if there is no direct control by the government over the editorial content of the media, the ruling party is very influential”. [16]
Tracing its roots to the mid 1990s, tabloidization has become a permanent characteristic of Romanian television. Scandal and sensationalism seem to be the perfect recipe for the ratings battle. Primetime news programs on commercial channels are filled with accidents, violent deaths, crimes, or fires. They have little relevance or consistency. The main objective of the news programs is to shock the audience, to bring them melodramatic news in order to make the programming more appealing.[17]
Romanian public television has been repeatedly accused of censorship. In 2004, Alexandru Costache, a journalist from the news department, decided to speak freely about the pressures on reporters. He argues that it became usual for reporters to ask the producers if they are allowed to broadcast various materials.[18] During 2000-2004, the state television was under constant control of the ruling party (Social Democratic Party). The News Department directors were frequently employed in unstable interim positions, which made them easier to control. The contests for permanent positions were delayed as long as possible in order to facilitate the government’s influence. This dominance culminated with the election law adopted prior to the 2004 elections, which forced Romanian public television to allow all political parties to air electoral messages in concordance with a formula defined by a parliamentary commission, transforming the public broadcasting into a spokesperson of politicians.[19]
After the change of political power in December 2004, the situation was expected to improve. Although the Parliament showed interest in reforming public service television after the 2004 elections, nothing happened. Moreover, with inadequate legislation, Parliament contributed to the further politicization of public broadcasting.[20] Regardless of laudable intentions of reform after the 2004 elections, the Romanian broadcasting industry does not look too promising. Commercial media outlets still provide entertainment and tabloid news, while newly niche channels mostly cover news, sports and movies, and not education and culture. Wealthy businessmen who own media outlets use them as instruments to fulfill their political ambitions. There is a lack of legal tools to prevent concentration and cross-ownership.
[1] Mihai Coman. “Romanian Television and the Changes of European Integration,” Trends in Communication 4 (2004): 212.
[2] Jerome Aumente and others, Eastern European Journalism: before, during and after communism, (Hampton Press Incorporated, 1999), 99.
[3] Alina Mungiu-Pippidi, “Romania’s too Free Press.” Foreign Policy 121 (2000): 98.
[4] Jerome Aumente and others, Eastern European Journalism: before, during and after communism, (Hampton Press Incorporated, 1999), 99.
[5] Jane Perlez. “With old tricks, Romania’s Old Reds Curb Press.” The New York Times, 6 August 1995, A4.
[6] Thomas A Mollison, “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 132.
[7] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence, (Budapest, 2005, accessed 15 March 2008);available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet.
[8] Thomas A Mollison, “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 132.
[9] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence, (Budapest, 2005, accessed 15 March 2008); available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet.
[10] Thomas A Mollison, “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 134. [11] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Report 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 15 March 2008), available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view ; Internet.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Robert McChesney, Corporate Media and the Threat to Democracy, (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997), 9.
[14] Manuela Preoteasa, The Powerful Defeated Media [article on-line], (Media Online, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008); available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=340; Internet. [15] Mihai Coman. “Media Bourgeoisie and Media Proletariat in Post-Communist Romania.” Journalism Studies 5, no 1 (2004): 54.
[16] Avadani, Ioana. Press Freedom is a Costly Issue [article on-line] (accessed 25 February 2008), available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=218; Internet.
[17] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Report 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 15 March 2008), available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view ; Internet.
[18] Manuela Preoteasa, The Powerful Defeated Media [article on-line], (Media Online, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008); available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=340; Internet. [19] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence, (Budapest, 2005, accessed 15 March 2008);available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet.
[20] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Report 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 15 March 2008), available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view ; Internet.
During the Communist Regime The communist regime brought television in Romania in 1956, when, on December 31, the first television program was broadcast from an improvised studio. From the very beginning, along with the newspapers and the radio, this new communication channel was perceived by the communist system as an important tool in the fight to promote the party’s ideology. Consequently, during the communist era, Romanian television did not serve its audience; instead, it became a component of the ruling regime, without any freedom or editorial independence.[1]
The evolution of Romanian Public Television was a reflection of the government’s policy and can be analyzed following the stages of the communist era in Romania: first stage (1947-1965) – stabilization of the newly established communist regime; second stage (1965-1971) – a permissive policy, open to Western media and culture; third stage (1971-1978) – Romania’s use of ideological mobilization to create the “new socialist man”, after China’ and Korea’s models; fourth stage (1978-1989) – the dominance of an increased personality cult and dictatorship.[2]
Between 1956 and 1971, Romanian television followed a rising path, with the state’s policy being more open and tolerant. Until he consolidated his power, Nicolae Ceausescu managed to put a human face on the totalitarian system, easing the censorship over mass media and allowing foreign programs to be broadcast on TV[3].
The mask of liberalization began to fall off starting with 1971, when Ceausescu and his wife visited China and Northern Korea. He was impressed by the vast manifestations and the well organized adulation for Mao or Kim II Sung. The stage-managed adulation of Mao and Kim II Sung, so meticulously choreographed, fired Ceausescu’s imagination and he demanded the same upon his return to Romania”.[4] Television developed into an important instrument in his plan, as he decided to purify Romanian culture of foreign and other influences. Everything had to be made in Romania and this included TV programs as well.[5] The first item to be sacrificed in this case was the international news. Most of the time, the entire newscast was dedicated to Ceausescu’s “extraordinary” speeches or visits. [6] As important news people could watch on TV during the few hours of available programming, odes of exaltations, performed by the young soimi ai patriei or pionieri.[7]
The last years of Ceausescu’s dictatorship were the worst. Entertainment, culture and sports almost disappeared from the TV programs, while broadcasting was narrowed to two hours per day in 1985 with TVR 2 channel being interrupted from its transmission.[8] Censorship was omnipresent in mass media, including television. The news programs were strictly monitored, any information concerning economical problems being forbidden. Words such as banana, orange, or coffee had been eliminated from the language used by media because it was almost impossible to find these products in stores, along with terms referring to the precarious living conditions: hunger, cold, darkness, etc. [9]
Eventually, communist television lost whatever credibility it had managed to obtain since its establishment in 1956. Therefore, television failed to be an accurate informer and surveyor of Romanian society and even failed to perform the roles assigned by the party and state. [10]
[1]Tiberiu Trancota, Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship) (Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006), 188.
[2] Peter, Gross, Mass Media in Revolution and National Development: the Romanian Laboratory (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1996), 9.
[3] Ibid.
[4]Dennis Delletant, Romania under Communist Rule ( Iasi: Center for Romanian Studies, 1999), 176.
[5] Anthony Daniells, Utopias Elsewhere. Journeys in a Vanishing World (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.,1991), 79.
[6]Gheorghe Epuran and Normand Turgeon, “The Romanian Television Industry”, Journal of Euro-Marketing 11 (2001): 38.
[7] Titles “achieved” by children in nursery and elementary school through a ceremony, which was an important moment in every child’s life, representing the pride of being children of the communism.
[8] Romania Television Society, TVR 50, (accessed 20 January 2008); available from http://www.tvr50.ro/ ; Internet.
[9] Tiberiu Trancota, Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship) (Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006), 193.
[10] Peter, Gross, Mass Media in Revolution and National Development: the Romanian Laboratory (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1996), 23.
Broadcasting Free: Post-Communism News Programs
The failure of communism in Romania not only has led to the collapse of rules and functioning systems, but also led to the appearance of a free and chaotic mass media system. The euphoria generated by the mass media boom (the rapid establishment of thousands of outlets, from political magazines to local music radios, dailies to new wire services, television stations to advertising companies, etc) has produced an incomplete image of the freedom of press. [1]
Although immediately after the fall of communism in 1989, Romanian Television became Free Romanian Television, that freedom lasted for less than two months. After the first democratic system came to power, Romanian Television was once again a valuable asset in the hands of the new government. [2] The first democratically elected leader of the state opposed any kind of elimination based on former Communist Party membership. As a result, most of the current mainstream media managers held important positions in the communist era.[3]
Private initiative in the television industry took form after 1992, when the new Audio-Visual Law allowed independent agencies to apply for licenses from the Ministry of Communication. By the end of 1993 licenses had been given to 50 TV stations and 196 private cable companies.[4]
However, these licenses were only given to local and regional broadcasters, the procedure for obtaining a license being long and difficult, with the hidden purpose to ensure that public stations had national control to protect their dominant position on the audio-visual market.[5]
After 1992, the government monopoly on television began to weaken along with the installation of satellite networks and the emergence of small, independent stations that reach local and sometimes regional audiences, which offered alternatives to the programs broadcast on public television.[6] Albeit the live transmission of anti-communist revolution, on December 1989, gave media a particular force, by the mid 1990s, television in Romania was mostly an entertainment tool.[7]
The real battle for commercial television started after 1996, when PRO TV channel was founded. Part of the Central European Media Enterprises (CME group), Pro TV broke the barriers of television, bringing a very powerful American marketing strategy. The news bulletins presented information in a brief format, with many spectacular images and numerous local correspondents. Its objective news coverage was considered by many as one of the reasons for the failure of the first post-communist regime in the 1996 elections. The new channel broadcast 60 minutes of news every day, dedicating about 25-30% of the program to international news.[8]
Pro TV played an important role in the evolution of the Romanian television market, by bringing the concept of competition. Rapidly, Romanian State Television and the other private stations tried to copy Pro TV’s format, in an attempt to offer new and improved programs. However, quantity does not necessarily mean quality. Consequently, the battle for audiences created mediocre television, with entertainment, soap operas, or action movies as the main players. [9]
In 1992, when government control of Romanian television started to weaken, the audio-visual market in Romania counted eight privately-held TV stations, more than any other Eastern European nation.[10] Today, the Romanian television industry counts more than thirty stations, and the number is growing. Although a new Audiovisual Code has been recently adopted, there are channels that continue to ignore the new rules. The results of two studies conducted by the EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program in 2005 and 2008 revealed that the broadcasting industry in Romania shows week independence and low credibility of broadcasters. Although there are hundreds of investors in the audiovisual field, the television industry continues to be controlled by four large players, along with public television, which remains under government control. [11]
In recent years Romanian media experienced hat local experts call “berlusconisation”.[12] In other words, media moguls enjoy political and economic power while having absolute control over the media. [13] Political involvement and no objectivity in covering the news are some of the problems Romanian television industry has faced over the past years, without much of improvement so far.[14] In post-communist Romania, public visibility is one of the main objectives of media leaders, who carefully oversee their public appearances. Directors and owners of media corporations are regularly spotted on the front page of newspapers or in popular TV talk shows. During election campaigns, the leaders in mass media dominate the debates on TV and quite frequently, after the elections, they reappear in various government positions. For many, mass media represents a starting point for a successful political career.[15] According to Ioana Avadani, “Romanian politics and business are very close. Even if there is no direct control by the government over the editorial content of the media, the ruling party is very influential”. [16]
Tracing its roots to the mid 1990s, tabloidization has become a permanent characteristic of Romanian television. Scandal and sensationalism seem to be the perfect recipe for the ratings battle. Primetime news programs on commercial channels are filled with accidents, violent deaths, crimes, or fires. They have little relevance or consistency. The main objective of the news programs is to shock the audience, to bring them melodramatic news in order to make the programming more appealing.[17]
Romanian public television has been repeatedly accused of censorship. In 2004, Alexandru Costache, a journalist from the news department, decided to speak freely about the pressures on reporters. He argues that it became usual for reporters to ask the producers if they are allowed to broadcast various materials.[18] During 2000-2004, the state television was under constant control of the ruling party (Social Democratic Party). The News Department directors were frequently employed in unstable interim positions, which made them easier to control. The contests for permanent positions were delayed as long as possible in order to facilitate the government’s influence. This dominance culminated with the election law adopted prior to the 2004 elections, which forced Romanian public television to allow all political parties to air electoral messages in concordance with a formula defined by a parliamentary commission, transforming the public broadcasting into a spokesperson of politicians.[19]
After the change of political power in December 2004, the situation was expected to improve. Although the Parliament showed interest in reforming public service television after the 2004 elections, nothing happened. Moreover, with inadequate legislation, Parliament contributed to the further politicization of public broadcasting.[20] Regardless of laudable intentions of reform after the 2004 elections, the Romanian broadcasting industry does not look too promising. Commercial media outlets still provide entertainment and tabloid news, while newly niche channels mostly cover news, sports and movies, and not education and culture. Wealthy businessmen who own media outlets use them as instruments to fulfill their political ambitions. There is a lack of legal tools to prevent concentration and cross-ownership.
[1] Mihai Coman. “Romanian Television and the Changes of European Integration,” Trends in Communication 4 (2004): 212.
[2] Jerome Aumente and others, Eastern European Journalism: before, during and after communism, (Hampton Press Incorporated, 1999), 99.
[3] Alina Mungiu-Pippidi, “Romania’s too Free Press.” Foreign Policy 121 (2000): 98.
[4] Jerome Aumente and others, Eastern European Journalism: before, during and after communism, (Hampton Press Incorporated, 1999), 99.
[5] Jane Perlez. “With old tricks, Romania’s Old Reds Curb Press.” The New York Times, 6 August 1995, A4.
[6] Thomas A Mollison, “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 132.
[7] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence, (Budapest, 2005, accessed 15 March 2008);available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet.
[8] Thomas A Mollison, “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 132.
[9] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence, (Budapest, 2005, accessed 15 March 2008); available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet.
[10] Thomas A Mollison, “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 134. [11] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Report 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 15 March 2008), available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view ; Internet.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Robert McChesney, Corporate Media and the Threat to Democracy, (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997), 9.
[14] Manuela Preoteasa, The Powerful Defeated Media [article on-line], (Media Online, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008); available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=340; Internet. [15] Mihai Coman. “Media Bourgeoisie and Media Proletariat in Post-Communist Romania.” Journalism Studies 5, no 1 (2004): 54.
[16] Avadani, Ioana. Press Freedom is a Costly Issue [article on-line] (accessed 25 February 2008), available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=218; Internet.
[17] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Report 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 15 March 2008), available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view ; Internet.
[18] Manuela Preoteasa, The Powerful Defeated Media [article on-line], (Media Online, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008); available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=340; Internet. [19] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence, (Budapest, 2005, accessed 15 March 2008);available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet.
[20] EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP), Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence – Follow-up Report 2008, (Budapest, 2008, accessed 15 March 2008), available from http://www.mediapolicy.org/tv-across-europe/tv-across-europe-follow-up-reports-2008-country/Romania-web.pdf/view ; Internet.
CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSIONS AND GENERAL FINDINGS
The findings of this research suggest that censorship is still a problem in Romania in the context of news programs. Based on the data collected, the study illustrated that ownership and government control are important problems Romanian broadcasting industry has to deal with.
All sources examined revealed excessive censorship and the existence of propaganda, propagated through all communication channels. Television was extensively employed by the communist government in the fight to convince Romanian people about the benefits of the system. The news bulletins were strictly controlled and no foreign news was allowed to be broadcast. They contained Ceausescu’s speeches, information on the economic utopian goals of the leader, or grandiose shows designed to sustain the cult of personality and the party’s ideology.
All sources examined revealed excessive censorship and the existence of propaganda, propagated through all communication channels. Television was extensively employed by the communist government in the fight to convince Romanian people about the benefits of the system. The news bulletins were strictly controlled and no foreign news was allowed to be broadcast. They contained Ceausescu’s speeches, information on the economic utopian goals of the leader, or grandiose shows designed to sustain the cult of personality and the party’s ideology.
CHAPTER 6 - LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
When analyzing the results of this study, certain limitations need to taken into account. No matter how long a research takes place, there always will be other aspects of the context that were not examined.[1]
One limitation refers to in the use of only qualitative research methods. The strength of qualitative research consists in collecting information in many ways, rather than choosing just one. Although the texts gathered for analysis conferred important data for answering the research questions, a survey would have brought more opinions and consequently, more information, concerning the issues researched. Two or more methods can be used in such a way that the weakness of one is compensated by the strength of another.[2] This method, called triangulation, would have helped the researcher to obtain a more complete picture of what is being studied.
[1] L.R. Gay and others, Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications, (New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2006), 17. [2] Ibid., 405.
One limitation refers to in the use of only qualitative research methods. The strength of qualitative research consists in collecting information in many ways, rather than choosing just one. Although the texts gathered for analysis conferred important data for answering the research questions, a survey would have brought more opinions and consequently, more information, concerning the issues researched. Two or more methods can be used in such a way that the weakness of one is compensated by the strength of another.[2] This method, called triangulation, would have helped the researcher to obtain a more complete picture of what is being studied.
[1] L.R. Gay and others, Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications, (New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2006), 17. [2] Ibid., 405.
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McChesney, Robert. Corporate Media and the Threat to Democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997.
McChesney, Robert. Rich Media, Poor Democracy. Communication Politics in Dubious Times. New York: The New Press, 2000.
Moisa, Raluca. “Cristiana Bota: Ma tem sa mai apar la TVR.” (“Cristiana Bota: I am afraid to be on TV anymore”) [article on-line]. Evenimentul Zilei, 7 February 2008, Section 4 (Showbiz), 8, accessed 7 February 2008; available from http://www.expres.ro/articole/detaliiarticol/393674/Cristiana-Bota-Ma-tem-sa-mai-apar-la-TV; Internet.
Mollison, Thomas A. “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 128-142).
Mungiu-Pippidi, Alina. “Romania’s too Free Press.” Foreign Policy 121 (2000): 98-101.
Obae, Petrisor.” Bogdan Chireac, recuperat de TVR.” (“ Bogdan Chireac saved by Romanian Public Television”)[article on-line]. Evenimentul Zilei, 27 February 2008, Section 3 (Media), 6, accessed 27 February 2008; available from http://www.evz.ro/articole/detalii-articol/793679/Bogdan-Chirieac-recuperat-de-TVR/; Internet.
O’Shaughnessy, Nicholas J. Politics and propaganda. Weapons of mass seduction. Michigan:
University of Michigan Press, 2004.
Perlez Jane. “With old tricks, Romania’s Old Reds Curb Press.” The New York Times, 6
August 1995, A4.
Popescu, Simona. “Noua Cenzura de la TVR Provoaca Demisii”. (“The new Censorship in the Romanian Public Television causes demission”) [article on-line]. Romania Libera, 21 January 2008, Section 3, 3, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.romanialibera.ro/a116065/noua-cenzura-de-la-tvr-provoaca-demisii.html; Internet.
Preoteasa, Manuela. “Romania”. In Media Ownership and its Impact on Media Independence and Pluralism [article on-line]. Mirnovni Institute Slovenia, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008; available from http://www2.mirovni-institut.si/media_ownership/preface.htm; Internet.
Preoteasa, Manuela. “The Powerful Defeated Media” [article on-line]. Media Online, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008; available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=340; Internet.
“Pro TV a Cumparat Licenta MTV”. (“Pro TV has bought the MTV licence”) [article on-line]. Wall Street Journal, 19 December 2007, Section 6 (Media & Pub), 32, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Marketing-PR/36400/PRO-TV-a-cumparat-licenta-MTV.html; Internet.
Romanian Television Society.” TVR 50”, accessed 20 January 2008; available from http://www.tvr50.ro/ ; Internet.
Stanley, Baran, and Davis K. Dennis. Mass Communication Theory. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006.
Troncota, Tiberiu. Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship). Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006.
Whitmarsh, Lona, and Ruxandra Ritter. “The Influence of Communism on Career Development and Education in Romania”. The Career Development Quarterly 56 (September 2007): 85-94.
YouTube. “TVR – Inaugurare Metrou Bucuresti.” (“Romanian Public Television – the Inauguration of Bucharest Subway”), accessed 1 March 2008; available from http://youtube.com/watch?v=Teftk2OtABY&feature=related; Internet.
Zankova, Bissera. “The media in Bulgaria during communism and their transformation into democratic institution”. OSA Archival Research Paper, accessed 12 October 2007; available from http://www.osa.ceu.hu/files/2005/ARP_Zankova_.pdf; Internet.
Avadani, Ioana. Press Freedom is a Costly Issue [article on-line]. Media Online, 2005, accessed 25 February 2008; available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=218; Internet.
BBC News. Country profile: Poland. BBC News, accessed 20 February 2008; available from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1054681.stm#media; Internet.
“Cele mai Tari Mutari din Piata Media Romaneasca in 2007.” (“The best movements on the Romanian Media Market”) [article on-line], Wall Street Journal, 21 December 2007, Section 6 (Media & Pub), 40, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Marketing-PR/36521/Cele-mai-tari-mutari-din-piata-media-romaneasca-in-2007.html; Internet.
Coman, Mihai. Mass Media in Romania post-comunista. (Mass Media in Post-Communist Romania) Iasi: Polirom, 2003.
Coman, Mihai. “Media Bourgeoisie and Media Proletariat in Post-Communist Romania.” Journalism Studies 5, no 1 (2004): 45-58.
Coman, Mihai. “O bila alba primeste presa cand vine vorba despre tendinta spre specializare.” (“Well done for Romanian Media when talking about the tendency toward specialization”) [article on-line], Ziarul Financiar, 18 December 2006, Section 2 (Profesii), 5, accessed 10 April 2007; available from http://www.zf.ro/articol_105542/mihai_coman__o_bila_alba_primeste_presa_cand_vine_vorba_despre_tendinta_spre_specializare.html; Internet.
Coman, Mihai. “Romanian Television and the Challenges of European Integration.” Trends
in Communication 4 (2004): 211-222.
Delletant, Dennis. Romania under Communist Rule. Iasi: Center for Romanian Studies, 1999.
Daniells, Anthony. Utopias Elsewhere. Journeys in a Vanishing World. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1991.
Epuran, Gheorghe, and Normand Turgeon. “The Romanian Television Industry”. Journal
of Euro-Marketing 11 (2001): 24-37.
EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP). “Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence”. Budapest, 2005, accessed 18 April 2007; available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet.
Gay, L.R., Geoffrey Mills, and Peter W.Airasian. Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2006.
Georgescu, Teodor. Romania in Istoria Secolului 20 (1945-1990). (Romania in the 20th century) Bucuresti: Hyperion XXI, 1992.
Glenny, Misha. The rebirth of History. Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy. London:
Penguin Group, 1990.
Gross, Peter. Entangled Evolutions: Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002.
Gross, Peter. Mass Media in Revolution and National Development: the Romanian Laboratory.
Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1996.
Hall, Richard A. “The Dynamics of Media Independence in Post-Ceausescu Romania”. In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, edited by Patrick H. O’Neill, 102-124. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997.
Kelly, Mary J., Gianpietro Mazzoleni, and Dennis McQuail. The Media in Europe. Thousands Oaks: Sage Publications, 2004.
Lazar, Diana. “Sassu este Criticat Dur pentru Cenzurarea TVR.” (“Sassu is criticized for censoring the Romanian Public Television”) [article on-line]. Cotidianul, 13 October 2007, Section 2 (Politics), 2, accessed 12 March 2008; available from http://www.cotidianul.ro/index.php?id=14768&art=37171&cHash=1c28ba07e4; Internet.
Lull, James. “Hegemony”. In Gender, Race, and Class in Media, edited by Gail Dines, and Jean Humez, 61-65. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc, 2003.
Lupu, Olesia, and Simona Mitocaru. “Work and Education in Transition.” Journal of Organizational Change Management 19, no 6 (2006): 775-783.
Lustyik, Katalin. “The Transformation of Children’s Television from Communism to Global Capitalism in Hungary.” M.A. , University of Colorado, 1999.
McChesney, Robert. Corporate Media and the Threat to Democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997.
McChesney, Robert. Rich Media, Poor Democracy. Communication Politics in Dubious Times. New York: The New Press, 2000.
Moisa, Raluca. “Cristiana Bota: Ma tem sa mai apar la TVR.” (“Cristiana Bota: I am afraid to be on TV anymore”) [article on-line]. Evenimentul Zilei, 7 February 2008, Section 4 (Showbiz), 8, accessed 7 February 2008; available from http://www.expres.ro/articole/detaliiarticol/393674/Cristiana-Bota-Ma-tem-sa-mai-apar-la-TV; Internet.
Mollison, Thomas A. “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 128-142).
Mungiu-Pippidi, Alina. “Romania’s too Free Press.” Foreign Policy 121 (2000): 98-101.
Obae, Petrisor.” Bogdan Chireac, recuperat de TVR.” (“ Bogdan Chireac saved by Romanian Public Television”)[article on-line]. Evenimentul Zilei, 27 February 2008, Section 3 (Media), 6, accessed 27 February 2008; available from http://www.evz.ro/articole/detalii-articol/793679/Bogdan-Chirieac-recuperat-de-TVR/; Internet.
O’Shaughnessy, Nicholas J. Politics and propaganda. Weapons of mass seduction. Michigan:
University of Michigan Press, 2004.
Perlez Jane. “With old tricks, Romania’s Old Reds Curb Press.” The New York Times, 6
August 1995, A4.
Popescu, Simona. “Noua Cenzura de la TVR Provoaca Demisii”. (“The new Censorship in the Romanian Public Television causes demission”) [article on-line]. Romania Libera, 21 January 2008, Section 3, 3, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.romanialibera.ro/a116065/noua-cenzura-de-la-tvr-provoaca-demisii.html; Internet.
Preoteasa, Manuela. “Romania”. In Media Ownership and its Impact on Media Independence and Pluralism [article on-line]. Mirnovni Institute Slovenia, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008; available from http://www2.mirovni-institut.si/media_ownership/preface.htm; Internet.
Preoteasa, Manuela. “The Powerful Defeated Media” [article on-line]. Media Online, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008; available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=340; Internet.
“Pro TV a Cumparat Licenta MTV”. (“Pro TV has bought the MTV licence”) [article on-line]. Wall Street Journal, 19 December 2007, Section 6 (Media & Pub), 32, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Marketing-PR/36400/PRO-TV-a-cumparat-licenta-MTV.html; Internet.
Romanian Television Society.” TVR 50”, accessed 20 January 2008; available from http://www.tvr50.ro/ ; Internet.
Stanley, Baran, and Davis K. Dennis. Mass Communication Theory. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006.
Troncota, Tiberiu. Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship). Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006.
Whitmarsh, Lona, and Ruxandra Ritter. “The Influence of Communism on Career Development and Education in Romania”. The Career Development Quarterly 56 (September 2007): 85-94.
YouTube. “TVR – Inaugurare Metrou Bucuresti.” (“Romanian Public Television – the Inauguration of Bucharest Subway”), accessed 1 March 2008; available from http://youtube.com/watch?v=Teftk2OtABY&feature=related; Internet.
Zankova, Bissera. “The media in Bulgaria during communism and their transformation into democratic institution”. OSA Archival Research Paper, accessed 12 October 2007; available from http://www.osa.ceu.hu/files/2005/ARP_Zankova_.pdf; Internet.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aioanei, Ingrid. “Leadership in Romania.” Journal of Organizational Change Management 19, no 6 (2006): 705-710. This article addresses several issues related to Romanian leadership and preferences in leadership’s style. “The questions were grouped according to the two major continuums: autocratic style versus democracy style and task orientation versus relationship orientation. Regarding the autocratic style-democratic style dimension, Romanian leadership leans towards the autocratic style and research results show that leaders in Romania are 55% authoritarian and 45% democratic. The autocratic dimension is slightly higher in state-owned enterprises, due to the strong centralization and to the remains of communism” (705).
Arendt, Hannah. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973.
This book is an in-depth examination of the two totalitarian movements in the twentieth century, Soviet Communism and Nazism, tracing their historical roots. It gives an exceptional vision of f the world within a totalitarian society and the political danger such regimes produce in the modern world.
Aumente, Jerome, Dean Mills, Peter Gross, Owen Johnson, and Ray Hiebert. Eastern European Journalism: before, during and after communism. Hampton Press Incorporated, 1999. This book is a comparative study of five related themes: the roots of journalism in East/Central Europe and the former Soviet Union; the role and effects of journalism leading up to the fall of the communism in 1989; journalism after 1989; and the state of journalism education in the regions under consideration.
Avadani, Ioana. Press Freedom is a Costly Issue [article on-line]. Media Online, 2005, accessed 25 February 2008; available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=218; Internet.
This article analyzes the level of freedom and independence of Romanian media. “Unfortunately, most of Romania’s media are still not profitable, but receive constant funding from their owners’ “other businesses”. According to journalists reports, in many cases owners’ media outlets are “encouraged” to protect those “other interests”, avoiding investigations, providing friendly treatment to business partners and practicing self-censorship. (2).
BBC News. Country profile: Poland. BBC News, accessed 20 February 2008; available from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1054681.stm#media; Internet.
Profile of Poland with an overview of media. “Poland's broadcasting market is the largest in Eastern and Central Europe and has attracted investment from foreign media groups. There is freedom and diversity of information, although laws against deriding the nation and its political system are still in force.”
Bradeanu, Alina, and Rosie Thomas. “Indian Summer. Romanian Winter”. South Asian Popular Culture 4, no 2 (2006): 141-146. The article focuses on the cinema under the communist regime in Romania, especially on the Indian films that “appear inextricably linked with memoires of communism” (141). Alina Bradeanu speaks about her memory of the first Indian movie she has seen: “Apart from a shot of an old man walking along a railway track I remember nothing of the film itself-only the fusion of color and sound on screen in contrast with the darkness of the streets” (142).
Campbell, Richard. Media & Culture. An Introduction to Mass Communication. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000.This book is an introduction to mass communication, discussing not only the central role played by media in representing national and global culture, but also the intimate role played in our lives. Media & culture offers useful guidelines for surveying the cultural landscape and tools for critiquing the media’s influences on democratic life and consumer culture.
“Cele mai Tari Mutari din Piata Media Romaneasca in 2007.” (“The best movements on the Romanian Media Market”) [article on-line], Wall Street Journal, 21 December 2007, Section 6 (Media & Pub), 40, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Marketing-PR/36521/Cele-mai-tari-mutari-din-piata-media-romaneasca-in-2007.html; Internet.This article features the most important shifts on the Romanian media market in 2007. Of particular interest for my research represents the launching of several channels within various media conglomerates.
Centre for Urban and Regional Studies (CURS). “Perceptia Publicului Privind Imaginea
Politicului in Programele de Stiri.” (“Public Perception regarding the Politics Image in News Programs.”), accessed 18 April 2007; available from http://www.curs.ro/uploads/cna0806.pdf; Internet. The Center for Urban and Regional Sociology (CURS) is a private company for social and marketing research. CURS’ research projects fall into four substantive areas and are conducted by the following departments: public opinion polls, urban and regional research, local development, market research, advertising and audience research. This research focused on how the audience perceives the political news.
Coman, Mihai. Mass Media in Romania post-comunista. (Mass Media in Post-Communist Romania) Iasi: Polirom, 2003. Mihai Coman outlines in this book the general features of post-communist Romanian media, bringing into the reader’s attention the concept of “non-journalist”, which works for big media institutions.
Coman, Mihai. “Media Bourgeoisie and Media Proletariat in Post-Communist Romania.” Journalism Studies 5, no 1 (2004): 45-58. The article focuses on identifying the new social and professional composition of the new body of journalists in post-communist Romania. The author suggests that transition in mass-media should be viewed as a battle for power, “the ultimate goal being the closure of the professional field and the legitimation of a new media bourgeoisie” (45).
Coman, Mihai. “O bila alba primeste presa cand vine vorba despre tendinta spre specializare.” (“Well done for Romanian Media when talking about the tendency toward specialization”) [article on-line], Ziarul Financiar, 18 December 2006, Section 2 (Profesii), 5, accessed 10 April 2007; available from http://www.zf.ro/articol_105542/mihai_coman__o_bila_alba_primeste_presa_cand_vine_vorba_despre_tendinta_spre_specializare.html; Internet. This interview highlights the qualities and shortcomings of Romanian media. Mihai Coman, Dean of the University of Journalism, Bucharest, Romania, talks about the lack of trust in Romania media because of too many corrupted journalists.
Coman, Mihai. “Romanian Television and the Challenges of European Integration.” Trends
in Communication 4 (2004): 211-222.This article discuses the upcoming changes in the Romanian media system after the European Union accession in 2007. The process of taking on board European regulation related to the mass media may appear, for many actors of the post communist press, as representing a loss of many of the elements of freedom gained since the fall of communism and the associated rules regarding the functioning of mass media.
Cotrau, Diana. “The Culturally Situated Young Romanian Viewer and the New Television.” Journal for the Studies of Religions and Ideologies 8 (2004): 23-30.This article focuses on the ways in which the Romanian Television made the transition from a former censored television toward a global approach. The research tries to illustrate how television has impacted young Romanian television viewers.
Csernatoni, Raluca. “The Overloaded Mass Media in Transition. The Case of Post-Communist Romania”. Pretext, October 2005, 41. The article analyzes the dynamics of mass-media as a socializing agent in transition Romanian society. Raluca Csernatoni emphasizes that the Romanian mass-media could be described as being overloaded with a variety of political and social functions.
Delletant, Dennis. Romania under Communist Rule. Iasi: Center for Romanian Studies, 1999.
Romania under the Communist Rule is an attempt of synthesis of Romania’s history after the war, tracing Romanian communism from the early years of the Party to the events of 1989, which ended the 45-year rule of the Communist Party.
Dima, Alina Mihaela. “The Necessity of the Competition Culture for Business Environment in the Context of the New EU Competition Policy Approach: the Case of Romania.” The Business Review 9, no.1 (December 2007): 242-250.This article offers a qualitative research, focusing on highlighting the necessity of the promotion of a competition culture in the context of accession to the European Union.
Dominick, Joseph R., Fritz Messere, and Barry L. Sherman. Broadcasting, Cable, the Internet, and Beyond. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.This text surveys the field of modern electronic media, including the new technologies, regulations, programming, and competition that affect our world and the broadcasting industry.
Daniells, Anthony. Utopias Elsewhere. Journeys in a Vanishing World. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1991.The book is a different travel book, written by Anthony Daniells after his journey in five communist countries in 1989. It describes the Stalinist holdouts – Albania, North Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, and Romania, along with their socialist rulers and their unfortunate peoples. It is of particular interest because of the details offered about communist Romania.
Elull, Jaques. Propaganda; The formation of Men’s Attitudes. New York: Vintage Books, 1973.
In this book, the French philosopher Jacques Ellul brings a new view and approach of propaganda, arguing that all modern propaganda is scientific in nature. The author regards propaganda as a sociological phenomenon rather than as something made by certain people for certain purposes.
Epuran, Gheorghe, and Normand Turgeon. “The Romanian Television Industry”. Journal
of Euro-Marketing 11 (2001): 24-37.This article examines the evolution of the television industry in Romania since the end of communism in 1989. It contains information on Romania, actors in the broadcasting industry and the types of programming offered by public broadcasters.
EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP). “Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence”. Budapest, 2005, accessed 18 April 2007; available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet. This report provides a detailed analysis of the situation of broadcasting in Romania. It focuses on how television ownership concentration has increased over the last few years, making television a non-transparent sector. The report continues with the Romanian Public Television, which, although it has the mission to provide educational and informative programming, promotes programs as tabloid and as trivialized as those of commercial television.
Fischer-Galati, Stephan A. The new Romania: from People’s Democracy to Socialist Republic. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1967. Professor Fischer-Galati evaluates in this book the extent of Romanian transformation since 1944, realizing an objective view of national Communist fulfillment of Romania’s “historic legacy”. He takes elements of propaganda into account but also finds Romanian debates justified by the notable advances made by the Communist Party in copying with the socioeconomic situation.
Gay, L.R., Geoffrey Mills, and Peter W.Airasian. Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2006. This book is a guide for every student in educational research, helping students become familiar with research mainly at a “how-to” skill and application level.
Gallagher, Tom. Modern Romania: The End of Communism, the Failure of Democratic Reform, and the Theft of a Nation. New York: New York University Press, 2005. In this book, Tom Gallagher examines Romania's experimentation with elections and democracy from 1989 to 2004. The author argues that Romania has not "transitioned" to democracy and that the terminology of transitions to democracy may be inapplicable to the Romanian context.
Georgescu, Teodor. Romania in Istoria Secolului 20 (1945-1990). (Romania in the 20th century) Bucuresti: Hyperion XXI, 1992. This book analyzes the Romanian history between 1945 and 1990. This period was characterized by the founding and development of the communist regime, eliminated in 1989.
Glenny, Misha. The rebirth of History. Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy. London:
Penguin Group, 1990.In this book, Misha Glenny portrays the new face of Eastern Europe in early 1990s, after the collapse of the communism. He analyses the new political forces in countries such as: Czech Republic (former Czechoslovakia), Poland, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria, and how the rebirth of history would enable people to participate actively in determining their own fate, for the first time in half a century.
Goban-Klas, Tomasz. “Politics versus the Media in Poland: A Game without Rules.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 24-42. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997. Article about media in Poland after 1989, characterized by a struggle over ownership and control, particularly over television. According to the author, “the public is perplexed at the use that is made of media.”(24). “Instead of ownership passing into the hands of national private owners such as journalists, investors or social organizations, these properties have been increasingly transferred into the hands of international media conglomerates.”(25)
Gross, Peter. Entangled Evolutions: Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002. This text focuses on how the news media are shaped in the post-communist era. The author’s goal is to identify if a nation can democratize without autonomous and professional media. “ The nature and role of the news media and their journalism as defined by their relationships with contemporary political culture, civil society, democratization, and all the institutions associated with them”(1).
Gross, Peter. Mass Media in Revolution and National Development: the Romanian Laboratory.
Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1996. This textbook provides an in depth look at the history of Romanian media from 1821 until 1989, covering the most important periods of its evolution. Particularly of interest for my topic is the part dedicated to communist years (1947-1989).
Hall, Richard A. “The Dynamics of Media Independence in Post-Ceausescu Romania”. In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, edited by Patrick H. O’Neill, 102-124. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997. The author argues in this article that the media independence from the state after 1989 is not enough in the political context of post-Ceausescu Romania. Moreover, because of the Securitate’s role during the Ceausescu era, the generic idea of “independence” used in the analysis of post-communist change is inadequate in the Romanian Case.
Huber, Silvia. Media Markets in Central and Eastern Europe: A Network Analytic Investigation.” ed. Silvia Huber, 49-61. Wien: Lit Verlag, 2007.This study examines the structure of media concentration by analyzing new market economics in Eastern Europe. “Media companies are owned by individuals or other media companies which, are, in turn, owned by other individuals and media companies and so on.” (9)
Jakubowicz, Karol. “Post-Communist Media Development in Perspective.” Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, accessed 2 March 2008; available from http://www.fes.de/fes4/publikationen/Jakubowicz.pdf; Internet.In this paper, the author provides a general overview of media and the progress it has achieved after 1989 in Central and Eastern European countries.
Kelly, Mary J., Gianpietro Mazzoleni, and Dennis McQuail. The Media in Europe. Thousands Oaks: Sage Publications, 2004. Covering 23 countries, the volume highlights and explains key issues of debate and current tendencies in media policy and provides basic statistics relating to each case study.
Kettle, Steve. “The Development of the Czech Media Since the Fall of the Communism.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 42-61. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997. The article examines the media in Czech Republic a few years after the fall of the communism. Although the progress is notable, media in this country is not yet recognized as free and independent due to commercial pressures and foreign investments.
Lanczi, Andras, and Patrick H. O’Neill. “Pluralization and the Politics of Media Change in Hungary.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 82-102. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997.This study points out that although in Hungary media were less rigid controlled than elsewhere in Eastern Europe during the communist years, a few years after 1989, the electronic media remained overwhelmingly in state hands.
Lazar, Diana. “Sassu este Criticat Dur pentru Cenzurarea TVR.” (“Sassu is criticized for censoring the Romanian Public Television”) [article on-line]. Cotidianul, 13 October 2007, Section 2 (Politics), 2, accessed 12 March 2008; available from http://www.cotidianul.ro/index.php?id=14768&art=37171&cHash=1c28ba07e4; Internet.
Article about Alexandru Sassu, President and General Manager of Romanian Television Society, who was accused last year of censorship after “advising” the News Director not to show a material about a Romanian politician.
Lull, James. “Hegemony”. In Gender, Race, and Class in Media, edited by Gail Dines, and Jean Humez, 61-65. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc, 2003.The article brings into attention the concept of hegemony, which in James Lull’s vision represents the power or dominance that one social group holds over others. The author explains the term, tracing its origins into the Marxist materialist theory. He argues that today, owners of media industries can produce and reproduce the content and tones of ideas favorable to them far more easily than other social groups because they manage key socializing institutions.
Lupu, Olesia, and Simona Mitocaru. “Work and Education in Transition.” Journal of Organizational Change Management 19, no 6 (2006): 775-783. This article highlights work and education in Romania since the fall of the communism. The transition to a democratic society involved adjustment to the free market economy model, including the approach to working life and education. The author suggests that a more open education is imperative for survival in this turbulent world.
Lustyik, Katalin. “The Transformation of Children’s Television from Communism to Global Capitalism in Hungary.” M.A. , University of Colorado, 1999. This thesis follows the evolution of children’s television in Hungary from the first days of TV in this country (1958) until the present time. Of particular interest for my work is the part dedicated to television during the communist regime.
Marx, Karl. Capital. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1955.
In Capital, Marx elaborates his version of the labor theory value and his conception of surplus value and exploitation which would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit in the collapse of industrial capitalism.
McChesney, Robert. Corporate Media and the Threat to Democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997. Robert McChesney draws in this book a detailed picture of corporate control of the news. He offers many ideas for media reform and warns about the effects of media mergers in a democratic society. He points out that the extent of public participation into communication policy-making is a measure of the level of democracy.
McChesney, Robert. Rich Media, Poor Democracy. Communication Politics in Dubious Times. New York: The New Press, 2000. The author argues that the media in various democratic systems have become an important antidemocratic force. In his opinion, the major beneficiaries of the so-called Information Age are prosperous investors and media corporations.
Milton, Andrew K. “New Media Reform in Eastern Europe: A Cross-National Comparison.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 7-24. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997. Andrew Milton argues in this study that “the news media’s political organizational leaderships and the political expectations during the communist era persist into the post-communist period.” (8) Legal changes have brought important changes in the ownership of media, particularly the involvement of foreign firms in ownership and distribution.
Moisa, Raluca. “Cristiana Bota: Ma tem sa mai apar la TVR.” (“Cristiana Bota: I am afraid to be on TV anymore”) [article on-line]. Evenimentul Zilei, 7 February 2008, Section 4 (Showbiz), 8, accessed 7 February 2008; available from http://www.expres.ro/articole/detaliiarticol/393674/Cristiana-Bota-Ma-tem-sa-mai-apar-la-TV; Internet. Interview with Cristiana Bota, former news anchor in Romanian Public Television from 1971 to 1991. It is of particular interest for my research because it includes many aspects of television during communism, especially how censorship was working. She reveals how each appearance and text used to be meticulously verified and every mistake penalized.
Mollison, Thomas A. “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 128-142).This article examines the role of television broadcasting in Romania’s move toward democracy. It mentions the role of television during the collapse of the Soviet Union, focusing on the condition of state television and the alternative broadcast networks.
Mungiu-Pippidi, Alina. “From State to Public Service: the Failed Reform of State Television in Central Eastern Europe”. In Reinventing Media: Media Policy Reform in East-Central Europe, edited by Sukosd, Miklos, and Peter Bajomi-Lazar, 31-63. New York: Central European University Press, 2003 Czechoslovakia. This article analyzes whether the transformation of state television into public service television was successful in former communist countries such as: Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. It provides an examination of the manner public service television operates and evaluates the its editorial independence in the region.
Mungiu-Pippidi, Alina. “Romania’s too Free Press.” Foreign Policy 121 (2000): 98-101.
This article provides a historical background on the state of the media industry in Romania since 1990. It also contains information on Adrian Sarbu, a media mogul in Romania.
Nicolescu, Luminita. “Higher Education in Romania: Evolution and Views from the Business Community.” Tertiary Education and Management 9, no 1 (January 2003): 77-95.
This article emphasizes the evolution of higher education in Romania after 1989 and presents the results of a study regarding the relationship between higher education and the business community in Romania. Companies are the major beneficiaries of higher education, along with individuals and society as a whole.
Obae, Petrisor.” Bogdan Chireac, recuperat de TVR.” (“ Bogdan Chireac saved by Romanian Public Television”)[article on-line]. Evenimentul Zilei, 27 February 2008, Section 3 (Media), 6, accessed 27 February 2008; available from http://www.evz.ro/articole/detalii-articol/793679/Bogdan-Chirieac-recuperat-de-TVR/; Internet. Article on a well known Romanian journalist, accused last year of illegal businesses, who recently joined the Romanian Television Society as the producer and host of a new program on external policy. The news generated many debates amongst managers from Romanian Televisions and journalists as well. They charge Romanian board with non-transparency, since the decision was taken without following the legal procedures.
O’Shaughnessy, Nicholas J. Politics and propaganda. Weapons of mass seduction. Michigan:
University of Michigan Press, 2004. This book provides an in depth analysis of the history of propaganda, focusing as well on the relationship between propaganda and mass media.
OSCE. The Impact of Media Concentration on Professional Journalism. Vienna, 2005, accessed 10 March 2008; available from http://www.osce.org/publications/rfm/2003/12/12244_102_en.pdf; Internet. This study provides an in-depth analysis of the media landscape in eight European countries, including Romania. “Economic concentration has long been acknowledged as one of the main threats to media pluralism and diversity.” (11).
Parvulescu, Sorana. “2004 Romanian Elections: Test Case for a True Romanian Democracy.” Romanian Journal of Political Science / Romanian Academic Society 4 (2004): 7-28.
This article analyzes the development and results of the November 2004 presidential and parliamentary elections in Romania. It focuses on how the elections were free, but unfair, because of the control exercised by the party in government over state and media agencies.
Perlez Jane. “With old tricks, Romania’s Old Reds Curb Press.” The New York Times, 6
August 1995, A4.This article discusses the extent of the press in Romania, which is still under the control of the government. The author brings several reasons for the impact of private media on selected audience.
Popescu, Simona. “Noua Cenzura de la TVR Provoaca Demisii”. (“The new Censorship in the Romanian Public Television causes demission”) [article on-line]. Romania Libera, 21 January 2008, Section 3, 3, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.romanialibera.ro/a116065/noua-cenzura-de-la-tvr-provoaca-demisii.html; Internet. This newspaper article discusses the case of a reporter from the Romanian Television Society, who decided to resign from his position due to the numerous acts of censorship in the news department. He claimed that many investigations on politicians, carried out by the news department, were banned from broadcast.
Preoteasa, Manuela. “Romania”. In Media Ownership and its Impact on Media Independence and Pluralism [article on-line]. Mirnovni Institute Slovenia, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008; available from http://www2.mirovni-institut.si/media_ownership/preface.htm; Internet. This study focuses on ownership patterns and their effects on media pluralism and independence in the countries of South East Europe. Of particular interest is the chapter dedicated to Romania, which contains important data and information on privatization and ownership structure.
Preoteasa, Manuela. “The Powerful Defeated Media” [article on-line]. Media Online, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008; available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=340; Internet. Article on censorship and media ownership in Romania. The author refers to several situations when media failed to objectively communicate the reality, favoring different institutions or media moguls.
“Pro TV a Cumparat Licenta MTV”. (“Pro TV has bought the MTV licence”) [article on-line]. Wall Street Journal, 19 December 2007, Section 6 (Media & Pub), 32, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Marketing-PR/36400/PRO-TV-a-cumparat-licenta-MTV.html; Internet. This article discusses one of the latest major transactions on the Romanian media market. The commercial channel PRO TV bought the Music Television System Society (MTV), strengthening its power after the acquisition of a sports channel in the same year.
Romania Television Society.” TVR 50”, accessed 20 January 2008; available from http://www.tvr50.ro/ ; Internet. Romanian Television Society (state owned television) celebrated 50 years of activity in 2006 and launched with this occasion a new website containing important information about its history. Visitors can watch online movies, shows, or news programs, all from the television’s archive.
Skolkay, Andrej. “Journalists, Political Elites and the Post-Communist Public: The Case of Slovakia.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 61-82. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997.The author observes the media evolution in Slovakia after the fall of communism, arguing that the absence of an established civil society has made the media vulnerable to attempt at political control. “Lack of clarity has characterized legislation on the media, and financial and other pressure has been applied to media deemed hostile to the government.”(61).
Stanley, Baran, and Davis K. Dennis. Mass Communication Theory. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to mass communication theory and serves as a guide to better analyze the topic of my thesis. Mostly chapter 4, which focuses on propaganda: The Rise of Media Theory in the Age of Propaganda.
Sparks, Collin. “Introduction: The Emerging media systems of post-communism”. The Public, no.3 (1995): 7-17. This article focuses on what types of media systems emerged after the fall of the communism. Collin Sparks provides an analysis of the media in several countries, including Romania, bringing into attention to the new broadcasting laws.
Stevenson, Nick. Understanding media cultures. Thousands Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2002. This book provides a wide range of social theories aimed at explanation of media role and functions in modern society. It covers all major theoretical works produced by representatives of various approaches and in several fields of social studies.
Sukosd, Miklos and Peter Bajomi-Lazar. Reinventing Media: Media Policy Reform in East-Central Europe. New York: Central European University Press, 2003. This volume is a collection of comparative and country case studies describing aspects of media reform in a few transition societies for Eastern Europe. Although the fall of the communism gave way to commercial and public service media, various challenges appeared: many forms of authoritarian control and a low level of journalistic skills and professional ethics.
Tascu, Miroslav-Valeriu, John Noftsinger, and Stephen Bowers.” The Problem of Post-Communist Education: The Romanian Example”. The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies 27, no 2 (Summer 2002): 203-226.This article focuses on the Romanian education system after the fall of the communism in 1989. Despite the freedom received, too many Romanian students are likely to emigrate and highly trained scientific specialists are attracted to service abroad.
Thum, Gladys, and Marcela Thum. Persuasion and propaganda in war and peace. Illinois: McDougall, Litell & Company, 1974. This book provides an analysis of the propaganda mechanisms used under the communist regimes. The detailed description offers the readers a comprehensive representation of this phenomenon that succeeded in changing the minds of millions of people.
Tismaneanu, Vladimir. Stalinism for all Seasons: a Political History of Romanian Communism. Berkley: University of California Press, 2003. Vladimir Tismaneanu outlines the history of the Communist regime in Romania, from the founding of the party to the fall of Nicolae Ceausescu in 1989. He focuses on the grotesque aspect of this black period offering a complete image of the mechanisms used for the manipulation of the masses.
Tismaneanu, Vladimir. The Crisis of Marxist Ideology in Eastern Europe. New York: Routledge, 1988. This book is an in depth analysis of the communist crisis in Eastern Europe before 1989. Vladimir Tismaneanu refers to the idealism of Marx, which conducted to a combination of demagoguery and opportunistic excuses for a very rigid class structure. Moreover, he explores the individual from the communist era, who was enslaved in the name of his own freedom.
Troncota, Tiberiu. Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship). Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006.
This book analyzes the communist period in Romania and how media were used as propaganda tools. The author concentrates on the power the system had on media, referring to the Press Law adopted in 1974, which explicitly highlighted the press duty to diffuse only the Communist Party’s ideology.
Vasilescu, Toma. “Televiziunea Romana la 50 de ani.” (“Romanian Public Television celebrates 50 years of activity”). Gandul, 25 November 2006, 10.
This article refers to the 50th anniversary of Romanian Public Television and how its image is perceived after 16 years of democracy. With more than 24 players on the Romanian audiovisual market, Romanian Public Television tried to maintain its serious and informative role in society, making efforts to avoid the general trend of promoting “non-values”.
Vasilescu, Oana. “Media in Romania.” In Media Markets in Central and Eastern Europe: an Analysis on Media Ownership in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, ed. Silvia Huber, 115-126. Wien: Lit Verlag, 2007. This study is an overview of Romanian media, including the main players on the market and the changes over the past twenty years. A particular interest for my research is the section dedicated to television.
Verdery, Katherine. “Anthropological Adventures with Romania’s Wizard of Oz, 1973-1989”. European Journal of Anthropology 4 (2004): 134-145.This essay is the result of Katherine Verdery’s visits in Romania between 1973 and 1989. She describes her experiences as a fieldworker in Romania and how her perception about this country has changed over the years. Her research focuses on the years 1984-1985, “a time of heightened austerity and surveillance – facts that paradoxically revealed the system’s weaknesses with unusual clarity” (135).
Verdery, Katherine. “Anthropology of Socialist Societies”. In Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, ed. Neil Smelser and Paul B. Baltes. Amsterdam: Pergamon Press. This article is an analysis on socialist societies, of particular interest for my research being the part dedicated to the “Social Engineering and Resistant Personhood”. “All Communist parties promoted massive projects of social engineering. They accorded knowledge and expertise a privileged place, under Party monopoly. Convinced of the creative power of language, Party leaders both used and modified language in commanding ways. They spoke of things that had yet to be created -- the working class, the proletarian dictatorship, the new socialist man -- as if those things already existed, and they developed hieratic speech with reduced vocabularies, clusters of noun phrases, and few (often passive) verbs, creating a limited, static verbal world. Party cadres intervened exhaustively in all facets of life, aspiring to create new moralities and to control populations in myriad ways. They attacked religion as superstition, instituted new socialist rituals, and expanded educational access to create enlightened citizens indifferent to religious belief. They filled the air with moral exhortations aimed at instilling a new, puritan, socialist ethic” (9).
Verdery, Katherine. National Ideology under Socialism – Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceausescu’s Romania. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1995. Katherine Verdery illustrates in this book how the example of Romania suggests that ethnic tensions come not from a rebirth of the pre-Communist Nationalism but from the strengthening of national ideologies under the Communist Party rule.
Whitmarsh, Lona, and Ruxandra Ritter. “The Influence of Communism on Career Development and Education in Romania”. The Career Development Quarterly 56 (September 2007): 85-94.The authors present the societal forces within a Communist environment that influenced the career development process, illustrated by a case history.
YouTube. “TVR – Inaugurare Metrou Bucuresti.” (“Romanian Public Television – the Inauguration of Bucharest Subway”), accessed 1 March 2008; available from http://youtube.com/watch?v=Teftk2OtABY&feature=related; Internet.
This short movie was broadcast on Romanian television in 1979 at the evening news, covering the inauguration of Romanian subway. Despite the importance of this moment, the news focused on the Romanian leader and his wife, showing hundreds of people constrained to welcome them with flowers, banners, and prolonged applauses. The comments were all about their important achievements, revealing the cult of personality that had to be constantly kept alive.
Zankova, Bissera. “The media in Bulgaria during communism and their transformation into democratic institution”. OSA Archival Research Paper, accessed 12 October 2007; available from http://www.osa.ceu.hu/files/2005/ARP_Zankova_.pdf; Internet.
This study offers a thoroughly examination of Bulgarian media before and after the fall of the communism. The author describes the propaganda mechanisms used before 1989 and the not so easy transition to a democratic institution.
Welch, Matt. “The Second Romanian Revolution will be Televised: the TV Show Dallas Helped Overthrow Ceausescu. Now Gangsta Rap and Pop Culture are driving out Corrupt Post-Soviet Thugs” [article on-line], Goliath, accessed 2 February 2008; available from http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-5118907_ITM; Internet.. This article provides an overview of the Romanian society before and after 1989, offering interesting information about Romanian Television. Matt Welch writes about the golden age of Romanian Television (1965-1980), when the state television “became both a showpiece and an agent for change, easing restrictions on content, hiring young artists to create spools of original programming, and importing top-quality movies and series from the U.S., Great Britain, and France.” The well-known series Dallas was a total success and it was the last sign of an era of openness. “By the end of 1980s, Romanian TV was down to a measly two hours a day, four on weekends. News was a brief daily tool to nurture Ceausescu’s cult of personality.” The author also mentions how one of the governing party after 1989 tried to manipulate television to influence the elections in 2004.
Arendt, Hannah. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973.
This book is an in-depth examination of the two totalitarian movements in the twentieth century, Soviet Communism and Nazism, tracing their historical roots. It gives an exceptional vision of f the world within a totalitarian society and the political danger such regimes produce in the modern world.
Aumente, Jerome, Dean Mills, Peter Gross, Owen Johnson, and Ray Hiebert. Eastern European Journalism: before, during and after communism. Hampton Press Incorporated, 1999. This book is a comparative study of five related themes: the roots of journalism in East/Central Europe and the former Soviet Union; the role and effects of journalism leading up to the fall of the communism in 1989; journalism after 1989; and the state of journalism education in the regions under consideration.
Avadani, Ioana. Press Freedom is a Costly Issue [article on-line]. Media Online, 2005, accessed 25 February 2008; available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=218; Internet.
This article analyzes the level of freedom and independence of Romanian media. “Unfortunately, most of Romania’s media are still not profitable, but receive constant funding from their owners’ “other businesses”. According to journalists reports, in many cases owners’ media outlets are “encouraged” to protect those “other interests”, avoiding investigations, providing friendly treatment to business partners and practicing self-censorship. (2).
BBC News. Country profile: Poland. BBC News, accessed 20 February 2008; available from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1054681.stm#media; Internet.
Profile of Poland with an overview of media. “Poland's broadcasting market is the largest in Eastern and Central Europe and has attracted investment from foreign media groups. There is freedom and diversity of information, although laws against deriding the nation and its political system are still in force.”
Bradeanu, Alina, and Rosie Thomas. “Indian Summer. Romanian Winter”. South Asian Popular Culture 4, no 2 (2006): 141-146. The article focuses on the cinema under the communist regime in Romania, especially on the Indian films that “appear inextricably linked with memoires of communism” (141). Alina Bradeanu speaks about her memory of the first Indian movie she has seen: “Apart from a shot of an old man walking along a railway track I remember nothing of the film itself-only the fusion of color and sound on screen in contrast with the darkness of the streets” (142).
Campbell, Richard. Media & Culture. An Introduction to Mass Communication. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000.This book is an introduction to mass communication, discussing not only the central role played by media in representing national and global culture, but also the intimate role played in our lives. Media & culture offers useful guidelines for surveying the cultural landscape and tools for critiquing the media’s influences on democratic life and consumer culture.
“Cele mai Tari Mutari din Piata Media Romaneasca in 2007.” (“The best movements on the Romanian Media Market”) [article on-line], Wall Street Journal, 21 December 2007, Section 6 (Media & Pub), 40, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Marketing-PR/36521/Cele-mai-tari-mutari-din-piata-media-romaneasca-in-2007.html; Internet.This article features the most important shifts on the Romanian media market in 2007. Of particular interest for my research represents the launching of several channels within various media conglomerates.
Centre for Urban and Regional Studies (CURS). “Perceptia Publicului Privind Imaginea
Politicului in Programele de Stiri.” (“Public Perception regarding the Politics Image in News Programs.”), accessed 18 April 2007; available from http://www.curs.ro/uploads/cna0806.pdf; Internet. The Center for Urban and Regional Sociology (CURS) is a private company for social and marketing research. CURS’ research projects fall into four substantive areas and are conducted by the following departments: public opinion polls, urban and regional research, local development, market research, advertising and audience research. This research focused on how the audience perceives the political news.
Coman, Mihai. Mass Media in Romania post-comunista. (Mass Media in Post-Communist Romania) Iasi: Polirom, 2003. Mihai Coman outlines in this book the general features of post-communist Romanian media, bringing into the reader’s attention the concept of “non-journalist”, which works for big media institutions.
Coman, Mihai. “Media Bourgeoisie and Media Proletariat in Post-Communist Romania.” Journalism Studies 5, no 1 (2004): 45-58. The article focuses on identifying the new social and professional composition of the new body of journalists in post-communist Romania. The author suggests that transition in mass-media should be viewed as a battle for power, “the ultimate goal being the closure of the professional field and the legitimation of a new media bourgeoisie” (45).
Coman, Mihai. “O bila alba primeste presa cand vine vorba despre tendinta spre specializare.” (“Well done for Romanian Media when talking about the tendency toward specialization”) [article on-line], Ziarul Financiar, 18 December 2006, Section 2 (Profesii), 5, accessed 10 April 2007; available from http://www.zf.ro/articol_105542/mihai_coman__o_bila_alba_primeste_presa_cand_vine_vorba_despre_tendinta_spre_specializare.html; Internet. This interview highlights the qualities and shortcomings of Romanian media. Mihai Coman, Dean of the University of Journalism, Bucharest, Romania, talks about the lack of trust in Romania media because of too many corrupted journalists.
Coman, Mihai. “Romanian Television and the Challenges of European Integration.” Trends
in Communication 4 (2004): 211-222.This article discuses the upcoming changes in the Romanian media system after the European Union accession in 2007. The process of taking on board European regulation related to the mass media may appear, for many actors of the post communist press, as representing a loss of many of the elements of freedom gained since the fall of communism and the associated rules regarding the functioning of mass media.
Cotrau, Diana. “The Culturally Situated Young Romanian Viewer and the New Television.” Journal for the Studies of Religions and Ideologies 8 (2004): 23-30.This article focuses on the ways in which the Romanian Television made the transition from a former censored television toward a global approach. The research tries to illustrate how television has impacted young Romanian television viewers.
Csernatoni, Raluca. “The Overloaded Mass Media in Transition. The Case of Post-Communist Romania”. Pretext, October 2005, 41. The article analyzes the dynamics of mass-media as a socializing agent in transition Romanian society. Raluca Csernatoni emphasizes that the Romanian mass-media could be described as being overloaded with a variety of political and social functions.
Delletant, Dennis. Romania under Communist Rule. Iasi: Center for Romanian Studies, 1999.
Romania under the Communist Rule is an attempt of synthesis of Romania’s history after the war, tracing Romanian communism from the early years of the Party to the events of 1989, which ended the 45-year rule of the Communist Party.
Dima, Alina Mihaela. “The Necessity of the Competition Culture for Business Environment in the Context of the New EU Competition Policy Approach: the Case of Romania.” The Business Review 9, no.1 (December 2007): 242-250.This article offers a qualitative research, focusing on highlighting the necessity of the promotion of a competition culture in the context of accession to the European Union.
Dominick, Joseph R., Fritz Messere, and Barry L. Sherman. Broadcasting, Cable, the Internet, and Beyond. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.This text surveys the field of modern electronic media, including the new technologies, regulations, programming, and competition that affect our world and the broadcasting industry.
Daniells, Anthony. Utopias Elsewhere. Journeys in a Vanishing World. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1991.The book is a different travel book, written by Anthony Daniells after his journey in five communist countries in 1989. It describes the Stalinist holdouts – Albania, North Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, and Romania, along with their socialist rulers and their unfortunate peoples. It is of particular interest because of the details offered about communist Romania.
Elull, Jaques. Propaganda; The formation of Men’s Attitudes. New York: Vintage Books, 1973.
In this book, the French philosopher Jacques Ellul brings a new view and approach of propaganda, arguing that all modern propaganda is scientific in nature. The author regards propaganda as a sociological phenomenon rather than as something made by certain people for certain purposes.
Epuran, Gheorghe, and Normand Turgeon. “The Romanian Television Industry”. Journal
of Euro-Marketing 11 (2001): 24-37.This article examines the evolution of the television industry in Romania since the end of communism in 1989. It contains information on Romania, actors in the broadcasting industry and the types of programming offered by public broadcasters.
EU Monitoring and Advocacy Program (EUMAP). “Romania – Television across Europe: Regulation, Policy, and Independence”. Budapest, 2005, accessed 18 April 2007; available from http://www.eumap.org/reports/2005/media/romania; Internet. This report provides a detailed analysis of the situation of broadcasting in Romania. It focuses on how television ownership concentration has increased over the last few years, making television a non-transparent sector. The report continues with the Romanian Public Television, which, although it has the mission to provide educational and informative programming, promotes programs as tabloid and as trivialized as those of commercial television.
Fischer-Galati, Stephan A. The new Romania: from People’s Democracy to Socialist Republic. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1967. Professor Fischer-Galati evaluates in this book the extent of Romanian transformation since 1944, realizing an objective view of national Communist fulfillment of Romania’s “historic legacy”. He takes elements of propaganda into account but also finds Romanian debates justified by the notable advances made by the Communist Party in copying with the socioeconomic situation.
Gay, L.R., Geoffrey Mills, and Peter W.Airasian. Educational Research. Competencies for Analysis and Applications. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2006. This book is a guide for every student in educational research, helping students become familiar with research mainly at a “how-to” skill and application level.
Gallagher, Tom. Modern Romania: The End of Communism, the Failure of Democratic Reform, and the Theft of a Nation. New York: New York University Press, 2005. In this book, Tom Gallagher examines Romania's experimentation with elections and democracy from 1989 to 2004. The author argues that Romania has not "transitioned" to democracy and that the terminology of transitions to democracy may be inapplicable to the Romanian context.
Georgescu, Teodor. Romania in Istoria Secolului 20 (1945-1990). (Romania in the 20th century) Bucuresti: Hyperion XXI, 1992. This book analyzes the Romanian history between 1945 and 1990. This period was characterized by the founding and development of the communist regime, eliminated in 1989.
Glenny, Misha. The rebirth of History. Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy. London:
Penguin Group, 1990.In this book, Misha Glenny portrays the new face of Eastern Europe in early 1990s, after the collapse of the communism. He analyses the new political forces in countries such as: Czech Republic (former Czechoslovakia), Poland, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria, and how the rebirth of history would enable people to participate actively in determining their own fate, for the first time in half a century.
Goban-Klas, Tomasz. “Politics versus the Media in Poland: A Game without Rules.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 24-42. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997. Article about media in Poland after 1989, characterized by a struggle over ownership and control, particularly over television. According to the author, “the public is perplexed at the use that is made of media.”(24). “Instead of ownership passing into the hands of national private owners such as journalists, investors or social organizations, these properties have been increasingly transferred into the hands of international media conglomerates.”(25)
Gross, Peter. Entangled Evolutions: Media and Democratization in Eastern Europe. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002. This text focuses on how the news media are shaped in the post-communist era. The author’s goal is to identify if a nation can democratize without autonomous and professional media. “ The nature and role of the news media and their journalism as defined by their relationships with contemporary political culture, civil society, democratization, and all the institutions associated with them”(1).
Gross, Peter. Mass Media in Revolution and National Development: the Romanian Laboratory.
Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1996. This textbook provides an in depth look at the history of Romanian media from 1821 until 1989, covering the most important periods of its evolution. Particularly of interest for my topic is the part dedicated to communist years (1947-1989).
Hall, Richard A. “The Dynamics of Media Independence in Post-Ceausescu Romania”. In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, edited by Patrick H. O’Neill, 102-124. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997. The author argues in this article that the media independence from the state after 1989 is not enough in the political context of post-Ceausescu Romania. Moreover, because of the Securitate’s role during the Ceausescu era, the generic idea of “independence” used in the analysis of post-communist change is inadequate in the Romanian Case.
Huber, Silvia. Media Markets in Central and Eastern Europe: A Network Analytic Investigation.” ed. Silvia Huber, 49-61. Wien: Lit Verlag, 2007.This study examines the structure of media concentration by analyzing new market economics in Eastern Europe. “Media companies are owned by individuals or other media companies which, are, in turn, owned by other individuals and media companies and so on.” (9)
Jakubowicz, Karol. “Post-Communist Media Development in Perspective.” Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, accessed 2 March 2008; available from http://www.fes.de/fes4/publikationen/Jakubowicz.pdf; Internet.In this paper, the author provides a general overview of media and the progress it has achieved after 1989 in Central and Eastern European countries.
Kelly, Mary J., Gianpietro Mazzoleni, and Dennis McQuail. The Media in Europe. Thousands Oaks: Sage Publications, 2004. Covering 23 countries, the volume highlights and explains key issues of debate and current tendencies in media policy and provides basic statistics relating to each case study.
Kettle, Steve. “The Development of the Czech Media Since the Fall of the Communism.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 42-61. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997. The article examines the media in Czech Republic a few years after the fall of the communism. Although the progress is notable, media in this country is not yet recognized as free and independent due to commercial pressures and foreign investments.
Lanczi, Andras, and Patrick H. O’Neill. “Pluralization and the Politics of Media Change in Hungary.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 82-102. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997.This study points out that although in Hungary media were less rigid controlled than elsewhere in Eastern Europe during the communist years, a few years after 1989, the electronic media remained overwhelmingly in state hands.
Lazar, Diana. “Sassu este Criticat Dur pentru Cenzurarea TVR.” (“Sassu is criticized for censoring the Romanian Public Television”) [article on-line]. Cotidianul, 13 October 2007, Section 2 (Politics), 2, accessed 12 March 2008; available from http://www.cotidianul.ro/index.php?id=14768&art=37171&cHash=1c28ba07e4; Internet.
Article about Alexandru Sassu, President and General Manager of Romanian Television Society, who was accused last year of censorship after “advising” the News Director not to show a material about a Romanian politician.
Lull, James. “Hegemony”. In Gender, Race, and Class in Media, edited by Gail Dines, and Jean Humez, 61-65. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc, 2003.The article brings into attention the concept of hegemony, which in James Lull’s vision represents the power or dominance that one social group holds over others. The author explains the term, tracing its origins into the Marxist materialist theory. He argues that today, owners of media industries can produce and reproduce the content and tones of ideas favorable to them far more easily than other social groups because they manage key socializing institutions.
Lupu, Olesia, and Simona Mitocaru. “Work and Education in Transition.” Journal of Organizational Change Management 19, no 6 (2006): 775-783. This article highlights work and education in Romania since the fall of the communism. The transition to a democratic society involved adjustment to the free market economy model, including the approach to working life and education. The author suggests that a more open education is imperative for survival in this turbulent world.
Lustyik, Katalin. “The Transformation of Children’s Television from Communism to Global Capitalism in Hungary.” M.A. , University of Colorado, 1999. This thesis follows the evolution of children’s television in Hungary from the first days of TV in this country (1958) until the present time. Of particular interest for my work is the part dedicated to television during the communist regime.
Marx, Karl. Capital. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1955.
In Capital, Marx elaborates his version of the labor theory value and his conception of surplus value and exploitation which would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit in the collapse of industrial capitalism.
McChesney, Robert. Corporate Media and the Threat to Democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press, 1997. Robert McChesney draws in this book a detailed picture of corporate control of the news. He offers many ideas for media reform and warns about the effects of media mergers in a democratic society. He points out that the extent of public participation into communication policy-making is a measure of the level of democracy.
McChesney, Robert. Rich Media, Poor Democracy. Communication Politics in Dubious Times. New York: The New Press, 2000. The author argues that the media in various democratic systems have become an important antidemocratic force. In his opinion, the major beneficiaries of the so-called Information Age are prosperous investors and media corporations.
Milton, Andrew K. “New Media Reform in Eastern Europe: A Cross-National Comparison.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 7-24. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997. Andrew Milton argues in this study that “the news media’s political organizational leaderships and the political expectations during the communist era persist into the post-communist period.” (8) Legal changes have brought important changes in the ownership of media, particularly the involvement of foreign firms in ownership and distribution.
Moisa, Raluca. “Cristiana Bota: Ma tem sa mai apar la TVR.” (“Cristiana Bota: I am afraid to be on TV anymore”) [article on-line]. Evenimentul Zilei, 7 February 2008, Section 4 (Showbiz), 8, accessed 7 February 2008; available from http://www.expres.ro/articole/detaliiarticol/393674/Cristiana-Bota-Ma-tem-sa-mai-apar-la-TV; Internet. Interview with Cristiana Bota, former news anchor in Romanian Public Television from 1971 to 1991. It is of particular interest for my research because it includes many aspects of television during communism, especially how censorship was working. She reveals how each appearance and text used to be meticulously verified and every mistake penalized.
Mollison, Thomas A. “Television Broadcasting Leads Romania’s March toward an Open, Democratic Society”. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 42, no 1 (Winter 1998): 128-142).This article examines the role of television broadcasting in Romania’s move toward democracy. It mentions the role of television during the collapse of the Soviet Union, focusing on the condition of state television and the alternative broadcast networks.
Mungiu-Pippidi, Alina. “From State to Public Service: the Failed Reform of State Television in Central Eastern Europe”. In Reinventing Media: Media Policy Reform in East-Central Europe, edited by Sukosd, Miklos, and Peter Bajomi-Lazar, 31-63. New York: Central European University Press, 2003 Czechoslovakia. This article analyzes whether the transformation of state television into public service television was successful in former communist countries such as: Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. It provides an examination of the manner public service television operates and evaluates the its editorial independence in the region.
Mungiu-Pippidi, Alina. “Romania’s too Free Press.” Foreign Policy 121 (2000): 98-101.
This article provides a historical background on the state of the media industry in Romania since 1990. It also contains information on Adrian Sarbu, a media mogul in Romania.
Nicolescu, Luminita. “Higher Education in Romania: Evolution and Views from the Business Community.” Tertiary Education and Management 9, no 1 (January 2003): 77-95.
This article emphasizes the evolution of higher education in Romania after 1989 and presents the results of a study regarding the relationship between higher education and the business community in Romania. Companies are the major beneficiaries of higher education, along with individuals and society as a whole.
Obae, Petrisor.” Bogdan Chireac, recuperat de TVR.” (“ Bogdan Chireac saved by Romanian Public Television”)[article on-line]. Evenimentul Zilei, 27 February 2008, Section 3 (Media), 6, accessed 27 February 2008; available from http://www.evz.ro/articole/detalii-articol/793679/Bogdan-Chirieac-recuperat-de-TVR/; Internet. Article on a well known Romanian journalist, accused last year of illegal businesses, who recently joined the Romanian Television Society as the producer and host of a new program on external policy. The news generated many debates amongst managers from Romanian Televisions and journalists as well. They charge Romanian board with non-transparency, since the decision was taken without following the legal procedures.
O’Shaughnessy, Nicholas J. Politics and propaganda. Weapons of mass seduction. Michigan:
University of Michigan Press, 2004. This book provides an in depth analysis of the history of propaganda, focusing as well on the relationship between propaganda and mass media.
OSCE. The Impact of Media Concentration on Professional Journalism. Vienna, 2005, accessed 10 March 2008; available from http://www.osce.org/publications/rfm/2003/12/12244_102_en.pdf; Internet. This study provides an in-depth analysis of the media landscape in eight European countries, including Romania. “Economic concentration has long been acknowledged as one of the main threats to media pluralism and diversity.” (11).
Parvulescu, Sorana. “2004 Romanian Elections: Test Case for a True Romanian Democracy.” Romanian Journal of Political Science / Romanian Academic Society 4 (2004): 7-28.
This article analyzes the development and results of the November 2004 presidential and parliamentary elections in Romania. It focuses on how the elections were free, but unfair, because of the control exercised by the party in government over state and media agencies.
Perlez Jane. “With old tricks, Romania’s Old Reds Curb Press.” The New York Times, 6
August 1995, A4.This article discusses the extent of the press in Romania, which is still under the control of the government. The author brings several reasons for the impact of private media on selected audience.
Popescu, Simona. “Noua Cenzura de la TVR Provoaca Demisii”. (“The new Censorship in the Romanian Public Television causes demission”) [article on-line]. Romania Libera, 21 January 2008, Section 3, 3, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.romanialibera.ro/a116065/noua-cenzura-de-la-tvr-provoaca-demisii.html; Internet. This newspaper article discusses the case of a reporter from the Romanian Television Society, who decided to resign from his position due to the numerous acts of censorship in the news department. He claimed that many investigations on politicians, carried out by the news department, were banned from broadcast.
Preoteasa, Manuela. “Romania”. In Media Ownership and its Impact on Media Independence and Pluralism [article on-line]. Mirnovni Institute Slovenia, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008; available from http://www2.mirovni-institut.si/media_ownership/preface.htm; Internet. This study focuses on ownership patterns and their effects on media pluralism and independence in the countries of South East Europe. Of particular interest is the chapter dedicated to Romania, which contains important data and information on privatization and ownership structure.
Preoteasa, Manuela. “The Powerful Defeated Media” [article on-line]. Media Online, 2004, accessed 15 March 2008; available from http://www.mediaonline.ba/en/?ID=340; Internet. Article on censorship and media ownership in Romania. The author refers to several situations when media failed to objectively communicate the reality, favoring different institutions or media moguls.
“Pro TV a Cumparat Licenta MTV”. (“Pro TV has bought the MTV licence”) [article on-line]. Wall Street Journal, 19 December 2007, Section 6 (Media & Pub), 32, accessed 20 February 2008; available from http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Marketing-PR/36400/PRO-TV-a-cumparat-licenta-MTV.html; Internet. This article discusses one of the latest major transactions on the Romanian media market. The commercial channel PRO TV bought the Music Television System Society (MTV), strengthening its power after the acquisition of a sports channel in the same year.
Romania Television Society.” TVR 50”, accessed 20 January 2008; available from http://www.tvr50.ro/ ; Internet. Romanian Television Society (state owned television) celebrated 50 years of activity in 2006 and launched with this occasion a new website containing important information about its history. Visitors can watch online movies, shows, or news programs, all from the television’s archive.
Skolkay, Andrej. “Journalists, Political Elites and the Post-Communist Public: The Case of Slovakia.” In Post-Communism and the Media in Eastern Europe, ed. Patrick H. O’Neill, 61-82. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1997.The author observes the media evolution in Slovakia after the fall of communism, arguing that the absence of an established civil society has made the media vulnerable to attempt at political control. “Lack of clarity has characterized legislation on the media, and financial and other pressure has been applied to media deemed hostile to the government.”(61).
Stanley, Baran, and Davis K. Dennis. Mass Communication Theory. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to mass communication theory and serves as a guide to better analyze the topic of my thesis. Mostly chapter 4, which focuses on propaganda: The Rise of Media Theory in the Age of Propaganda.
Sparks, Collin. “Introduction: The Emerging media systems of post-communism”. The Public, no.3 (1995): 7-17. This article focuses on what types of media systems emerged after the fall of the communism. Collin Sparks provides an analysis of the media in several countries, including Romania, bringing into attention to the new broadcasting laws.
Stevenson, Nick. Understanding media cultures. Thousands Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2002. This book provides a wide range of social theories aimed at explanation of media role and functions in modern society. It covers all major theoretical works produced by representatives of various approaches and in several fields of social studies.
Sukosd, Miklos and Peter Bajomi-Lazar. Reinventing Media: Media Policy Reform in East-Central Europe. New York: Central European University Press, 2003. This volume is a collection of comparative and country case studies describing aspects of media reform in a few transition societies for Eastern Europe. Although the fall of the communism gave way to commercial and public service media, various challenges appeared: many forms of authoritarian control and a low level of journalistic skills and professional ethics.
Tascu, Miroslav-Valeriu, John Noftsinger, and Stephen Bowers.” The Problem of Post-Communist Education: The Romanian Example”. The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies 27, no 2 (Summer 2002): 203-226.This article focuses on the Romanian education system after the fall of the communism in 1989. Despite the freedom received, too many Romanian students are likely to emigrate and highly trained scientific specialists are attracted to service abroad.
Thum, Gladys, and Marcela Thum. Persuasion and propaganda in war and peace. Illinois: McDougall, Litell & Company, 1974. This book provides an analysis of the propaganda mechanisms used under the communist regimes. The detailed description offers the readers a comprehensive representation of this phenomenon that succeeded in changing the minds of millions of people.
Tismaneanu, Vladimir. Stalinism for all Seasons: a Political History of Romanian Communism. Berkley: University of California Press, 2003. Vladimir Tismaneanu outlines the history of the Communist regime in Romania, from the founding of the party to the fall of Nicolae Ceausescu in 1989. He focuses on the grotesque aspect of this black period offering a complete image of the mechanisms used for the manipulation of the masses.
Tismaneanu, Vladimir. The Crisis of Marxist Ideology in Eastern Europe. New York: Routledge, 1988. This book is an in depth analysis of the communist crisis in Eastern Europe before 1989. Vladimir Tismaneanu refers to the idealism of Marx, which conducted to a combination of demagoguery and opportunistic excuses for a very rigid class structure. Moreover, he explores the individual from the communist era, who was enslaved in the name of his own freedom.
Troncota, Tiberiu. Romania Comunista: Propaganda si Cenzura.(Communist Romania: Propaganda and Censorship). Bucuresti: Tritonic, 2006.
This book analyzes the communist period in Romania and how media were used as propaganda tools. The author concentrates on the power the system had on media, referring to the Press Law adopted in 1974, which explicitly highlighted the press duty to diffuse only the Communist Party’s ideology.
Vasilescu, Toma. “Televiziunea Romana la 50 de ani.” (“Romanian Public Television celebrates 50 years of activity”). Gandul, 25 November 2006, 10.
This article refers to the 50th anniversary of Romanian Public Television and how its image is perceived after 16 years of democracy. With more than 24 players on the Romanian audiovisual market, Romanian Public Television tried to maintain its serious and informative role in society, making efforts to avoid the general trend of promoting “non-values”.
Vasilescu, Oana. “Media in Romania.” In Media Markets in Central and Eastern Europe: an Analysis on Media Ownership in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, ed. Silvia Huber, 115-126. Wien: Lit Verlag, 2007. This study is an overview of Romanian media, including the main players on the market and the changes over the past twenty years. A particular interest for my research is the section dedicated to television.
Verdery, Katherine. “Anthropological Adventures with Romania’s Wizard of Oz, 1973-1989”. European Journal of Anthropology 4 (2004): 134-145.This essay is the result of Katherine Verdery’s visits in Romania between 1973 and 1989. She describes her experiences as a fieldworker in Romania and how her perception about this country has changed over the years. Her research focuses on the years 1984-1985, “a time of heightened austerity and surveillance – facts that paradoxically revealed the system’s weaknesses with unusual clarity” (135).
Verdery, Katherine. “Anthropology of Socialist Societies”. In Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, ed. Neil Smelser and Paul B. Baltes. Amsterdam: Pergamon Press. This article is an analysis on socialist societies, of particular interest for my research being the part dedicated to the “Social Engineering and Resistant Personhood”. “All Communist parties promoted massive projects of social engineering. They accorded knowledge and expertise a privileged place, under Party monopoly. Convinced of the creative power of language, Party leaders both used and modified language in commanding ways. They spoke of things that had yet to be created -- the working class, the proletarian dictatorship, the new socialist man -- as if those things already existed, and they developed hieratic speech with reduced vocabularies, clusters of noun phrases, and few (often passive) verbs, creating a limited, static verbal world. Party cadres intervened exhaustively in all facets of life, aspiring to create new moralities and to control populations in myriad ways. They attacked religion as superstition, instituted new socialist rituals, and expanded educational access to create enlightened citizens indifferent to religious belief. They filled the air with moral exhortations aimed at instilling a new, puritan, socialist ethic” (9).
Verdery, Katherine. National Ideology under Socialism – Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceausescu’s Romania. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1995. Katherine Verdery illustrates in this book how the example of Romania suggests that ethnic tensions come not from a rebirth of the pre-Communist Nationalism but from the strengthening of national ideologies under the Communist Party rule.
Whitmarsh, Lona, and Ruxandra Ritter. “The Influence of Communism on Career Development and Education in Romania”. The Career Development Quarterly 56 (September 2007): 85-94.The authors present the societal forces within a Communist environment that influenced the career development process, illustrated by a case history.
YouTube. “TVR – Inaugurare Metrou Bucuresti.” (“Romanian Public Television – the Inauguration of Bucharest Subway”), accessed 1 March 2008; available from http://youtube.com/watch?v=Teftk2OtABY&feature=related; Internet.
This short movie was broadcast on Romanian television in 1979 at the evening news, covering the inauguration of Romanian subway. Despite the importance of this moment, the news focused on the Romanian leader and his wife, showing hundreds of people constrained to welcome them with flowers, banners, and prolonged applauses. The comments were all about their important achievements, revealing the cult of personality that had to be constantly kept alive.
Zankova, Bissera. “The media in Bulgaria during communism and their transformation into democratic institution”. OSA Archival Research Paper, accessed 12 October 2007; available from http://www.osa.ceu.hu/files/2005/ARP_Zankova_.pdf; Internet.
This study offers a thoroughly examination of Bulgarian media before and after the fall of the communism. The author describes the propaganda mechanisms used before 1989 and the not so easy transition to a democratic institution.
Welch, Matt. “The Second Romanian Revolution will be Televised: the TV Show Dallas Helped Overthrow Ceausescu. Now Gangsta Rap and Pop Culture are driving out Corrupt Post-Soviet Thugs” [article on-line], Goliath, accessed 2 February 2008; available from http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-5118907_ITM; Internet.. This article provides an overview of the Romanian society before and after 1989, offering interesting information about Romanian Television. Matt Welch writes about the golden age of Romanian Television (1965-1980), when the state television “became both a showpiece and an agent for change, easing restrictions on content, hiring young artists to create spools of original programming, and importing top-quality movies and series from the U.S., Great Britain, and France.” The well-known series Dallas was a total success and it was the last sign of an era of openness. “By the end of 1980s, Romanian TV was down to a measly two hours a day, four on weekends. News was a brief daily tool to nurture Ceausescu’s cult of personality.” The author also mentions how one of the governing party after 1989 tried to manipulate television to influence the elections in 2004.
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